Activity 1.3

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CONTENTS

 Section 1: The overview of organizational behavior

 Definition and scope

 The Hawthorne study

 Section 2: The human relation movement

 Mary Parker Follet

 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

 Section 3: Motivation

 Definition

 Maslow’s needs hierarchy

 Intrinsic & extrinsic motivation

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THE OVERVIEW OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

FROM “ORGANIZATION THEORY” TO “ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR”

Organizational factors

(e.g., structure, rules)

Organizational Outcomes

(e.g., profit, effectiveness)

Individual/Team outcomes

(e.g., individuals’

performance)

Individual/Team-level

factors

(e.g., ???)

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 Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that draws from psychology, sociology,

anthropology, political science, and economics. It focuses on understanding individual and group

dynamics within organizational settings. As people work together, a variety of complex factors come

into play. OB seeks to analyze these interactions to help managers anticipate behavioral responses

and effectively manage outcomes.

 There are three goals of OB:

1. To explain the reasons behind individual and group behaviors within an organization.

2. To predict how these behaviors will unfold based on various internal and external influences.

3. To equip managers with strategies to effectively guide and motivate individuals and groups, ensuring they contribute their best

effort towards achieving organizational goals.

THE DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF OB

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BehaviorMotivation

Cognitions

Affect/ Emotions

Self Efficacy

Ego Resources

Needs

Personal Traits

Environment

(Culture/Team/

Leadership, etc.)

A Framework for Organizational Behavior Study

Goals

Values

Outcomes

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 Scholars from Harvard Business School conducted a number of experiments from 1924 to 1933 at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company in Illinois.

 Research Question: Are employees more productive in a well-lit environment than they are in a poorly-lit environment?

THE BEGINNING OF OB STUDY – THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES

Improved lighting, workstation,

having regular breaks, etc.

Surveys/

Interviews

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THE BEGINNING OF OB STUDY – THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES

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THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES

Main findings

 Researchers were surprised to find that productivity increased by the

control group / period (without improvements) and the experimental

group (with improvements)

Why?

1. Attention received by the group (Hawthorne effect)

2. In some studies, the workers were consulted, and allowed to

discussed with others before any changes were made → respects and

group dynamics

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THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES - IMPLICATIONS

A change in the views of workers: They are not isolated, unrelated individuals; they are social beings and their behaviors are affected by:

Personal and social conditioning – values, hopes, fears, expectations

Human satisfaction derived from his or her social participation with coworkers and supervisors.

Researchers started to explore informal employee groups/teams and the social functions that occur within group and influence the behavior of the individual group members.

Demonstrate the important influence of human factors on worker productivity

(Borkowski 2005, pp.7-8; Shafritz et al. 2016, p. 295-296) 10

THE HUMAN RELATION MOVEMENT

MARY PARKER FOLLET & PARTICIPATORY

MANAGEMENT

 Mary Parker Follet (1868-1933)

 Life: American social worker focusing on the related issues of community

 Ideas: Mother of Modern management—emphasizing on human elements in

organizations

 “The giving of orders”—micromanagement and human relations

 Issue: issuing of orders is surrounded by many difficulties

 Three to-do things: (1) build up certain attitudes, (2) provide for the release of

these attitudes, (3) augment the releases response as it is being carried out

 Main arguments: (1) one person should not give orders to another person, but

both should agree to take their orders from the situation, (2) scientific

management: it tends to depersonalized orders, (3) the order should be the law of

the situation, (4) the situation is always evolving, and (5) orders should involve

circular not linear behavior

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MARY PARKER FOLLET & PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT

Mary Parker Follet’s contribution

 Background: the emphasis of orthodoxy was mainly macro

 Micro issue: how individuals within organizations operated and how decisions were made

 Hawthorne experiments in 1920s as the genesis of the human relations school

 Follet’s contribution

 As a major voice of “participatory management”

 The advantages of exercising “power” as opposed to “power over”

 Law of the situation

 Draws attention to the problems caused when superior-subordinate roles inhibit the productivity of the organization

 Was one of the first to focus on the theory of individual within organizations

 Workers should be more responsive to peer pressure than to management controls

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HUMAN RELATIONS AND 1950S

Why 1950s?

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MCGREGOR: “THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE (1957)”

Background: How to utilize the social science to make our human organization truly effective?

The conventional view—Theory X  Propositions: (1) management is responsible for organizing the elements of

productive enterprise in the interest of economic end, (2) management is a process of directing people’s efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behavior, (3) people would be passive to organizational needs—needed to be controlled, persuaded, and rewarded

 Assumptions: (1) people are naturally indolent, (2) people lack ambition, (3) people are self-centered, (4) people resist to change

Challenges to conventional views  Mistaken notion of causation: Behavior is not a consequence of man’s

inherent nature, it is a consequence rather of the nature of industrial organizations, of management practice

 New focus: Management has provided for physiological and safety needs → management need to focus on social and egoistic needs

 Carrot-and-stick theory: does not work at all once man has reached an adequate subsistence level and is motivated by higher needs

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MCGREGOR: “THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE (1957)”

Theory Y

 Proposition:

 (1) people are not nature passive or resistant to organizational needs,

 (2) people have become so as a result of experience in orgs,

 (3) management needs to recognize and develop these human characteristics,

 (4) management need to assure that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives,

 (5) management by objectives V.S. management by control,

 (6) rely on self-direction and self-control

 Suggestions:

 (1) decentralization and delegation,

 (2) job enlargement: encouraging the acceptance of responsibility at the bottom of organization, focusing on social and egoistic needs,

 (3) participation and consultative management,

 (4) performance appraisal

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An articulation of the basic assumptions of the organizational behavioral perspective

Hawthorne studies → human factors in the group/team level

McGregor’s Theories → how individual differences in terms of their personality, needs, motivation and

attitudes may interact with different managing styles and practices in affecting individual level outcomes.

Like Simon, McGregor pointed out the absurdity of maintaining universal principles of organizational

arrangements

These differing philosophic orientations are extremes for purposes of example, most work situations

would require a mix rather than a simplistic acceptance of either construct.

THE IMPLICATIONS OF MCGREGOR’S THEORIES

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MOTIVATION

MOTIVATION AND LEADERSHIP

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What is motivation? What are the different types of

motivations/ motivational theories?

What is the importance of

motivational research in public

organizations?

CLASS ACTIVITY I: MANAGER’S NIGHTMARE

Imagine you are the manager of a college sports or debate team and face the following situation:

 You are dissatisfied with team performance, as some members are not putting in enough effort.

 You lack resources for additional training or monetary incentives.

 You cannot terminate team members or alter the organizational structure, task progress, or rules.

Given these constraints, how would you improve your team’s performance?

 Discuss your ideas with your classmates and either present your own suggestions or provide feedback on others' proposals.

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THE DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION

 To be motivated means to be

moved to do something (Ryan &

Deci, 2000)

 “Motivation” (noun) refers to the

forces acting within individual that

move us, arouse us, and direct us

to do an activity (Rainey, 2009)

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THE DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION (CONT’D)

 “Motivation” = “to want”, “wanting” (verb)

 To have or feel a need of (a desired end state);

 To wish or demand the presence of (a desired end state);

 To desire to come, go, or be;

 To have a strong desire for or inclination toward (like);

 To hunt or seek in order to seize (Higgins and Kruglanski, 2000)

 Motivational research

 As compared to “knowing” (cognition), “feeling” (affect/emotions), and “doing” (behavior)

 Motivational research is concerned with the nature and functions of wanting and their relation to knowing, feeling, and doing.

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WHAT IS MOTIVATION ABOUT?

Motivation accounts for (Graham & Weiner, 1996):

 The choice of behavior (i.e., what we do or what we choose to do).

 The latency of behavior (i.e., how long it takes before we initiate the activity)

VS

VS

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WHAT IS MOTIVATION ABOUT? (CONT’D)

 The intensity of behavior (i.e., how hard we actually work at the activity)

 The persistence of behavior (i.e., how long we are willing to remain at the activity)

 The cognitions and emotional reactions accompanying the behavior (i.e., what we are thinking and feeling while

engaged in the activity )

VS

VS

Study continuously for 10 hours vs 1 hour

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THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION

 Motivation varies in level (i.e., people have different amounts of motivation)

 The level of motivations can be changed or manipulated by environments and/or external interventions.

Environment External Intervention

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THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION

 Motivation varies in orientation (i.e., people have different types of motivation)

 People may have multiple types of motivation for an activity at the same time

 The salience of motivational orientations can be changed or primed by environments and/or external interventions (Levesque & Pelletier 2003)

 Example: What motivated you to attend this class/program?

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MASLOW: “A THEORY OF HUMAN

MOTIVATION”

 General introduction

 Hunger drive: the hunger drive was rejected as a centering point or model for a

definitive theory of motivation

 Basic needs: any motivated behavior must be understood to be a channel through

which many basic needs may be simultaneously expresses or satisfied—more than

one motivation

 Hierarchy: (1) human needs arrange themselves in hierarchies of prepotency, (2)

the appearance of one need usually rests on the prior satisfaction of another,

more pre-potent need,

 Human center: motivation theory should be human centered

 Goal: classifications of motivation must be based upon goals rather than upon

instigating drives or motivated behavior

 Motivation theory is not synonymous with behavior theory

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MASLOW: “A THEORY OF HUMAN MOTIVATION”

Maslow’s needs hierarchy

 The physiological needs: (1) water, food, rest, (2) at once other (and higher) needs

emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism

 The Safety needs: predictable

 The love needs: affection and belongingness needs

 The esteem needs: which is soundly based upon real capacity, achievement and

respect from others

 The need for self-actualization: What a man can be, he must be.

Mechanisms

 “Once lower needs are satisfied, they cease to be motivators of behaviors”

 “Conversely, higher needs cannot motivate until lower needs are satisfied”

Source: (Hysa & Mansi, 2020)

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TYPES OF

MOTIVATION

 Types of motivations in the

framework of Self-

Determination Theory (SDT): (Ryan &

Deci 2000)

 Intrinsic motivation: Refers to

doing something because it is

inherently interesting or enjoyable

 Extrinsic motivation: Refers to

doing something because it leads

to a separable outcome

Source: (Cercos, 2017)

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INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

 Intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent

satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence (Ryan &

Deci 2000)

 The reward is in the activity itself (e.g., the task is interesting or

meaningful)

 The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within

experimental studies of animal behavior (White, 1959)

Robert W. White (1920-1975)

One of the early intrinsic motivation theorists 30

INTRINSIC

MOTIVATION

 Animals like monkeys, cats, &

rats engage in exploratory,

playful, and curiosity-driven

behaviors even in the absence

of reinforcement or reward

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INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

How to measure human’s intrinsic motivation?

 Self-reports of interest and enjoyment of the activity

 ‘‘Free choice’’ measure in laboratory experiments

 Participants are exposed to a task under varying conditions (e.g., getting a reward or not).

 After a while, the experimenter tells participants they will not be asked to work with the target task any further.

 The participants are then left alone in the experimental room with the target task as well as various distractor activities.

 It is assumed that, if there is no extrinsic reason to do the task (e.g., no reward and no approval), then the more time they spend with the

target task in the “free choice” period, the more intrinsically motivated they are for that task.

(Deci 1971; Ryan & Deci 2000b)

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EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

 Extrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity to attain (or avoid) some separable outcome.

 The reward is separated from the activity itself (e.g., the task may not be interesting or meaningful, but people still do it for some instrumental purposes)

 Extrinsic motivation is NOT equal to External incentive

 The separable outcome can be either positive or negative, tangible or intangible. For example:

 Positive – Tangible: Monetary reward

 Positive – Intangible: Good personal image

 Negative – Tangible: Punishment

 Negative – Intangible: Disapproval from others

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EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION  Extrinsic motivation can vary greatly in its relative autonomy. For example:

 Students choose to study because they think it is valuable for their future career

 Students are forced to study to avoid punishments from their parents

Source: (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTERNAL REWARDS, INTRINSIC AND

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS

 Motivation Crowding Theory / Crowding-Out Effect

 Under particular conditions, providing external (monetary)

rewards undermine intrinsic motivation and lead to a

sequent decrease in supply

 Example: Paying for blood undermines cherished social

values and would therefore reduce the motivation to donate

blood (i.e., a change in the perceived nature of the activity)

(Frey & Jegen 2001 )

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OTHER TYPES OF MOTIVATIONS: PROCESS THEORIES

Source: (Kakkos & Trivellas, 2011)

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EXPECTANCY THEORY

Source: (Joy, 2018) 37

THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATIONAL

RESEARCH IN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS

Arguments:

 Work motivation is an independent variable that affect

performance

 Work motivation is variable that mediates the influences of

other factors on performance

 Motivations lead to different work-related behaviors that will

affect performance AND other organizational outcomes.

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MOTIVATION & PERFORMANCE

 Motivation accounts for the choice, latency, intensity, persistence, and emotional reactions of work behavior.

 These attributes of work behavior will affect the actual output/outcome of work.

 The primary objective of work motivation research is to learn how to motivate employees to perform the duties and

responsibility assigned by the organization (Wrigth, 2001)

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MOTIVATION AS A MEDIATOR

 Many contextual or personal factors may exert influences on work performance via the mechanism of work

motivation.

 Example: Leadership

 Mechanism: Leadership→ Higher Intrinsic motivation (i.e., the work is meaningful) → Higher Performance

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MOTIVATIONS & WORK-RELATED BEHAVIORS

 Motivations account for different types of work-related behavior, either constructive or destructive, which may positively or negatively affect organizational performance or other desirable outcomes

 Examples:

 Prosocial (altruistic) motivation → extra-role helping behaviors

 Power motivation → Office politics

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PUBLIC SERVICE

MOTIVATION

Dimensions of Public Service

Motivation

 Attraction to public service

 Compassion

 Commitment to public value

 Self-sacrifice

Source: (Prebble, 2014)

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PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION—POTENTIAL IMPACTS

Source: Palma & Sepe, 2017 Source: Gan et al., 2017

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44Source: (Das, 2023)