section 1
2: Mental Health and Stress
Your Health Today, 6th edition
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Positive Psychology and Character Strengths
In recent years, psychologists have become more interested in positive psychology
Focus on positive emotions, characteristics, strengths, and conditions that create happiness
Six virtues that “enable human thriving”
Wisdom
Courage
Humanity
Justice
Temperance
Transcendence
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Characteristics of Mentally Healthy People
Possess high self-esteem: positive regard for oneself
Accept imperfections
Altruistic: unselfishly concerned for others
Have a sense of control over their lives
Demonstrate social competence in relationships, and able to rely on others
Not overwhelmed by emotions
Maintain a positive outlook on life
Have a capacity for intimacy; no fear of commitment
Creative, and appreciate creativity in others
Persevere and take on challenges
Take reasonable risks in order to grow
Bounce back from adversity
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The Self-Actualized Person
Self-actualization: the state attained when a person has reached his or her full potential
Proposed by Maslow as the level at which people achieve transcendence
Sense of well-being that comes from finding purpose and meaning in life
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Optimism, Self-Efficacy, and Resilience
Optimism: tendency to see problems as temporary and specific rather than permanent and general
Self-efficacy: general sense that you have some control over your life
Resilience: ability to bounce back from adverse events
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Figure 2.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Physiological needs (base)
Food and water; shelter; sleep; exercise; sex
Safety and security
Safe surroundings; protection by others; knows to avoid risks
Love and belongingness
Loved; loving; connected
Self-esteem
As a person; as a doer; in relationships
Self-actualization (top)
Realism; self-acceptance; autonomy; authenticity; capable of intimacy; creativity
Source: Based on Motivation and Personality, by Abraham H. Maslow, ed. Robert D. Frager and James Fadiman, 1987, 3rd ed., New York: Harper & Row.
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Happiness and Positive Psychology
Happiness involves three components:
Positive emotion and pleasure (savoring sensory experiences)
Engagement (being deeply involved with family, work, romance, and hobbies)
Meaning (using personal strengths to serve some larger end)
Engagement and meaning are the most important in giving people satisfaction and happiness
Note: some people may have a happiness “set point” determined by genetics
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Figure 2.2 Happiness by the numbers.
About 40% of happiness is under our control
50% is due to our genes; 10% is due to circumstances
$75,000 is the annual income that makes people happiest
More doesn’t make people happier; less can make life difficult
Having 10 friends or regular contacts leads to the most happiness
Spending 6 to 7 hours each day socializing with friends and family leads to the most happiness
The happiest couples have 5 good interactions for every bad one
33, 55, 70s: the happiest ages, according to research
Source: “Happiness by the numbers: 8 Stats that could change your life,” by Jessica Cassity, 2016, http://my.happify.com/hd/happiness-by-the-numbers/
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Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence: understanding of emotional experience, self-awareness, and sensitivity to others
Daniel Goleman argued qualities such as self-awareness, self-discipline, persistence, and empathy are more important than IQ
Leads to more positive relationships, better academic performance, more adaptive decision-making skills, and greater mental health
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Emotional Intelligence (2)
People who are emotionally intelligent can:
Recognize, name, and understand their emotions
Manage their emotions and control their moods
Motivate themselves
Recognize and respond to emotions in others
Be socially competent
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Bereavement and Healthy Grieving
Grieving is a natural response to loss, often expressed by sadness, loneliness, anger, and guilt
Such intense emotions can have a negative impact on overall health
Bereavement typically involves four phases: numbness and shock; separation; disorganization; reorganization
Seeking support and keeping a journal can be part of the healing process
There is no right or wrong way to grieve and no specific timetable
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Facing Death
Kübler-Ross, in 1969 proposed stages people go through when in the process of dying
(1) denial and isolation
(2) anger
(3) bargaining
(4) depression
(5) acceptance
Stages are not linear; people experience them in different orders or may revisit stages
More modern approaches focus on ways to live with illness rather than prepare for death
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The Brain’s Role in Mental Health and Illness
The brain is the central control station for human intelligence, feeling, and creativity
The brain and nervous system mediate all behavior, both normal and abnormal
Since the 1980s, knowledge of the structure and function of the brain has increased dramatically
Advances in imaging technologies (CAT scans, PET scans, MRIs, fMRIs) have allowed for many new discoveries
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The Developing Brain
By the age of 6, 95% of the brain is formed
Just before puberty, a growth spurt occurs in the frontal cortex, where the “executive functions” of planning, organization, and rational thinking are controlled
The limbic system becomes more powerful, while the prefrontal cortex that controls impulses does not mature until the 20s
By the early to mid-20s, a more mature adult brain has developed
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Mental Illness and the Brain
Mental illnesses are diseases that affect the brain
Mental disorders are caused by complex interactions
Biological factors, psychological processes, social influences, and cultural factors, especially during early childhood
Some have a genetic component
Cognitive mental disorders can be caused by tumors, brain trauma, or stroke
Imbalances of neurotransmitters seem to be particularly important in a variety of mental disorders
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Mental Disorders and Treatment
Mental disorder: a pattern of behavior associated with distress, disability, or significantly increased risk of suffering, death, pain, disability, or loss of freedom
A mental disorder is qualitatively different from a psychological problem that can be considered normal, and it can be diagnosed from a set of symptoms
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Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Group of conditions that often start before a child enters grade school
Include limitations of learning and difficulty with behavior control and social skills
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
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Mood Disorders
Also called depressive or affective disorders
Among the most common mental disorders around the world
About 15.7 million adults in the U.S. (6.7%) have at least one major depressive episode
Women experience episodes twice as often as men
Examples include:
Major depressive disorder (depression)
Bipolar disorder (with manic episodes)
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Anxiety Disorders
Along with depression, anxiety disorders are the most common mental disorders
Panic attack: apprehension or intense fear, in no danger
Panic disorder: recurrent unexpected panic attacks
Specific phobia: intense fear of a situation or object, invoking immediate anxiety
Social phobia: intense fear of social or performance situations
Generalized anxiety disorder: worry about routine matters
Obsessive-compulsive disorder: persistent, intrusive thoughts, impulses, or images that cause intense anxiety or distress
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Addiction
Addiction: continued, compulsive behavior despite serious negative consequences
Physiological dependence reduces sensitivity to substance’s effects
Withdrawal symptoms occur when substance use stops
Even without physiological dependence, psychological dependence can occur
Usually associated with substance use, but concept of addiction now extended to other areas of compulsive behaviors
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Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders
Psychotic disorders: characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior, and other signs that an individual has lost touch with reality
Schizophrenia has a strong genetic component
In most cases, symptoms of the disease can be controlled with medication
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Mental Disorders and Suicide
Suicide is the second-leading cause of death among college students
About 8% of college-aged students seriously considered suicide in 2014, and 1.3% attempted to kill themselves
Women in the U.S. are more likely to attempt suicide, but men are four times more likely to succeed
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Mental Disorders and Suicide (2)
What leads a person to suicide?
As many as 90% of those who commit suicide are suffering from a mental disorder, often depression
The symptom linking depression and suicide is a feeling of hopelessness
Depression and alcoholism may be involved in two-thirds of suicides
Substance abuse and depression can be lethal
Sometimes there is no apparent precipitating event or problem
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Mental Disorders and Suicide (3)
Behavioral signs that may indicate a person is thinking about suicide:
Comments about death and threats of suicide
Increasing social withdrawal and isolation
Intensified moodiness
Increase in risk-taking behaviors
Sudden improvement in mood, accompanied by certain behaviors, such as giving away possessions
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Mental Disorders and Suicide (4)
How to help:
The danger of asking if someone is thinking about suicide (“planting the seed”) is a myth
Encourage the person to talk, asking direct questions
Encourage the person to get help through a suicide hotline or counseling
Do not agree to keep the situation a secret
Do not leave a suicidal person alone
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Self-Injury
Intentional injury to one’s own body, known sometimes as self-harm, self-mutilation, or self-injurious behavior
Behaviors include cutting, burning, scratching, branding, and head banging
Individuals often have a history of physical and/or sexual abuse as well as coexisting problems such as substance abuse or an eating disorder
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Treatments for Mental Disorders
Psychotherapy (counseling)
Psychotherapy: treatment based on the development of a positive interpersonal relationship between a client and a therapist
More than 250 different models exist
Medications
Antipsychotics
Antidepressants
Anxiolytics (antianxiety)
Use has increased dramatically in recent years, especially among children and adolescents
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What Is Stress?
Stress: general state of the body, mind, and emotions when an environmental stressor has triggered the stress response
Stressors: events or agents in the environment that can cause stress
When you appraise an event as positive, you experience eustress, or positive stress
When you appraise it as negative, you experience distress
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The Stress Response
A stress response (or fight-or-flight response) is a series of physiological changes that occur in the body
All animals, including humans, have the ability to respond to emergencies they perceive as dangerous
The stress response is carried out by the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic branch: initiates the stress response
Parasympathetic branch: turns off the stress response and returns the body to normal
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The Relaxation Response
Homeostasis is a state of stability and balance in which body functions are maintained within a normal range
The relaxation response is a series of physiological changes that calm the body systems and return them to normal functioning
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Acute Stress and Chronic Stress
Your body can deal with short-term acute stress, as long as you recover afterwards
Many people live in a state of chronic stress, which is a stress response continuing without resolution
Chronic stress increases the likelihood of illness
Prolonged or severe stress weakens nearly every system in the body
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The General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye introduced the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) to describe and explain the physiological changes observed in the stress response
The syndrome has three stages:
Alarm stage
Resistance stage
Exhaustion stage
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Figure 2.6 General Adaptation Syndrome.
Homeostasis is the state of stability and balance in which functions are maintained within a normal range. The body’s responses move furthest from homeostasis in the alarm stage. In the resistance stage, the body uses energy to cope with the continued stress but is unable to return to homeostasis. After prolonged exposure to stress, the body may either recover and return to homeostasis, or enter the exhaustion stage and fall away from homeostasis toward illness or even death.
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Physical Effects of Chronic Stress
Stress plays a role in illness and disease in a variety of ways
Immune system: can be suppressed by both brief and long-term stressors
Cardiovascular system: the stress response can cause various forms of heart disease
Gastrointestinal system: common stomach ailments can be related to stress
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Physical Effects of Chronic Stress (2)
Mental health: both acute and chronic stress can contribute to the development of psychological illnesses
Acute stress disorder
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Adjustment disorder
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Mediators of the Stress Response
Different people respond differently to stressors
Reasons may include past experiences and one’s overall level of wellness
Other critical areas include:
Personality factors
Habitual ways of thinking
Inborn or acquired attitudes toward the demands of life
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Personality Factors
Type A behavior pattern: impulsive, achievement oriented, and highly competitive
Prime candidates for stress-related illnesses, and increased risk for a number of other diseases
A key culprit is hostility, an ongoing accumulation of irritation and anger
Type B behavior pattern: less driven
More easygoing and less readily frustrated
Less susceptible to coronary heart disease
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Personality Factors (2)
Recent additional personality types
Type C personalities: introverted and detail-oriented; may have trouble communicating, and appear cautious and reserved, with a tendency to please others
Type D personalities: not very expressive, and hold in negative emotions, with a tendency to experience anger, anxiety, and sadness while fearing negative judgments from others
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Cognitive Factors, Resilience, and Hardiness
Your outlook and beliefs about life affect how you deal with stressors in your life
People with a realistic attitude can take things in stride and reduce the frequency and intensity of the stress response
Resilience allows stress-resistant people to focus on immediate issues and explain their struggles in positive and helpful ways
Hardiness: an affective style of coping with stress, characterized by a tendency to view life events as challenges rather than threats
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Sources of Stress
Life events that require adjustment and adaptation
Daily hassles, especially if they pile up
College stress
Job pressures and burnout
Money and financial worries
Family and interpersonal stress
Time pressure, overload, and technology
Anger
Trauma
Societal pressures
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Healthy and Unhealthy Ways to Manage Stress
Unhealthy ways to manage stress include the use of tobacco, the use and abuse of drugs and alcohol, and the use of food to manage feelings
Positive but sedentary approaches, such as listening to music, should be balanced with more active stress management techniques
What works for one may not be helpful for another
Practice stress management on a regular basis
Some stressful events and situations are overwhelming—don’t hesitate to seek counseling
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Stress Reduction Strategies
Time management
Improve planning
Prioritize
Social support
The best way to develop a support system is to give support to others
A healthy lifestyle
Adopt a nutritious diet
Exercise
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Relaxation Techniques
Deep breathing
Progressive relaxation
Visualization, or guided imagery
Mindfulness-based meditation
Yoga
T’ai chi
Biofeedback
Affirmations
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Review
What is mental health?
How do we respond to a loss?
What is the brain’s role in mental health and illness?
What are common mental disorders, and how are they treated?
What is stress?
How does stress affect health?
What are the main sources of stress and the main approaches to managing stress?
©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.