LING 3P71: Exercise 4.. I need help in the last 5 questions of part 2
Ling 3P71: X’-syntax Handout 19’
8. Xˈ-Syntax
8.1 Xˈ-syntax: NP
8.1.1 From TG to GB: X'
(1)
(2) a. S ➞ NP VP b. NP ➞ Det N c. VP ➞ V NP (PP) d. PP ➞ P NP
(3) the student of chemistry with long hair
NP ➞ Det N PP PP (flat structure)
Q: Does the tree adequately represent our linguistic knowledge?
(4) I saw the student of chemistry with long hair, but I didn’t see the one with short hair.
• ‘student of chemistry’ as a constituent is not so represented;
• GB solution: add an intermediate projection (Jackendoff 1977, Radford 1988):
(5)
Ling 2P61: X’-syntax Lecture
Evidence: Are the two PP’s really different structurally?
➀ coordination: coordination conjoins same categories; different categories cannot be coordinated:
(6) a. students of chemistry and of linguistics
b. *students of chemistry and with long hair
➁ permutation: same categories can be switched; different categories cannot. Complement occurs closer to H than adjunct
(7) a. students of chemistry with long hair
b. *students with long hair of chemistry
Summary: complement: sister to X;
adjunct: sister to Xˈ and daughter to another Xˈ;
specifier: daughter to XP and sister to Xˈ (e.g. Det in (8))
(11) Template: NP Rules: NP ➞ (Spec) Nˈ Nʾ ➞ Nˈ (Adjunct) Nʾ ➞ N (Complement)
• The intermediate level b/t max projection (XP) and lexical head (X) is called Xˈ;
• Xˈ is a variable and can stand for Nˈ, Vˈ, Aˈ, Pˈ, etc.;
• Spec, Adjunct & Complement are functional labels and should be replaced by categorial labels in trees;
• Always use the template when drawing trees;
• Always go through at least one bar-level, even if the node does not branch: e.g. John
• Adjuncts are noun modifiers, adverbials..., and may occur before Nˈ: a bright student of linguistics
8.1.2 From NP to DP
(9) is the VP template in X'-syntax that include two VP rules: VP V' (adjunct)
V' V NP, where we observe -
(9)
- V is lexical H of VP
- Only H is non-phrasal
- All non-head projections (e.g. NP, Adjunct) are phrasal
(10) is the old NP template in X'-syntax that include two NP rules: NP D N' [D=Spec]
N' N (Complement)
(10)
Problem: D is non-head in NP but not phrasal
Ling 3P71: X’-syntax Handout 19’
Solution (Abney, 1987): DP Hypothesis: D is actually outside NP and heads its own phrasal
projection (DP).
(11) TG view: DP Hypothesis:
• D is Spec of NP • D is lexical H in DP
• D is non-H • solves problem of D as non-phrasal
• D is non-phrasal • NP is complement to D
Empirical evidence for D as phrasal: ‘s-genitive
(i) ’s is attached to phrases:
(12) a. [the man standing over there]’s hat (attached to the whole phrase)
b. *the man’s standing over there hat (not to H)
(ii) ’s is a determiner:
(13) *the man over there’s the hat (’s in complementary distribution w/ other D’s)
DP template and DP example:
(14)
’s is D
DP is max projection
D is followed by NP as its Complement
DP2 is Spec of DP1
D may be null
In-class exercise: Draw Xˈ-trees for the following phrases, using triangles for underlined parts.
1. some friends of mine from Amsterdam
2. an ugly face that appeared out of nowhere
Ling 2P61: X’-syntax Lecture
8.2 Xˈ-syntax: VP
(15) VP rule: VP ➞ V (NP) (NP) (PP*)
{ (Sʾ) } (AP)
(16)a. The cat ran.
b. The cat chased the mouse.
c. The cat gave the mouse a surprise.
d. The cat made the mouse a friend.
e. The cat thought that the mouse was a friend.
f. The cat was friendly.
8.2.1 Motivation for V’
(17) John will study linguistics at Harvard this year.
Q: Does the VP structure in (13) adequately represent our linguistic knowledge?
(18)a. John will study linguistics at Harvard this year, and Mary will do so, too.
b. John will study linguistics ar Harvard this year, and Mary will do so next year.
c. John will study linguistics at Harvard this year, and Mary will do so at Yale next year.
(19)
• study linguistics at H this year (V' 1 ), study linguistics
at H (V' 2 ), and study linguistics (V'
3 ) are all C’s
exclusively dominated by Vˈ
• DP 4 “this year” as adjunct is sis to V'
2 and PP “at H”
as adjunct is sis to V' 3 , both imm’ly dominated by V‘
• DP 2 “linguistics” as complement is sis to V
However,
• Problem: S has no head of same category • Solution: [±Tense] determines type of S [±finite] • Tense=inflection, thus I; • if S is headed by I, max projection = IP, and
intermediate projections = I'
Ling 3P71: X’-syntax Handout 19’
(20) IP template and rules: IP ➞ NP Iʾ (NP=Spec of IP; Su) Iʾ ➞ I VP (VP=Complement of INFL) I ➞ -ed [+T, +Agr] will [+T, +Agr]
to [-T, -Agr]
Other phrases: AP, ADVP, PP [Read Cowper 1992, Radford 1988 or Jackendoff 1977; + seminar]
In-class exercise: Draw tree diagrams for the following:
a. go to the park (VP) b. watch a movie (VP)
c. send him a letter (VP) d. we watched a movie (IP)
8.3 CP rules
(18) CP ➞ Spec Cʾ Cʾ ➞ C IP C ➞ that, for, whether/if ...
(19) a. (He told me) [ that the cat killed the rat ]
b. (It’s cruel) [ for the cat to kill the rat ]
(20) a. John will kill the fly.
b. Will John ▵ kill the fly? c. When will John ▵ kill the fly?
In-class exercise: Draw tree diagrams for the bracketed parts, using triangles for the underlined words:
1. I wonder [whether it will rain]
2. [Where did your friend see the cat]
3. I want you [to come at noon]
• [Spec, CP] and/or C position may be unfilled • I-to-C for Y/N Q • Wh-word fills [Spec, CP] position • Start with IP if independent S • Start with CP if sub-clause or interrogative S
Ling 2P61: X’-syntax Lecture
8.4 Conclusion
Table 8.1 Functional constituents and their realizations in X-bar syntax
XP Spec (daughter of XP) Xʾ Adjunct (sister of Xˈ) X Complement1 (sister of X)
CP Wh-words Cʾ XP (disjunct) C IP
IP DP (subject) Iʾ PP/ADVP I VP
DP
NP
DP (possessor)
??
D’
Nʾ
AP, Rel clause
PPloc/tem,
D
N
NP (’s possessed)
CP (appositive clause)
PP (reply to...)
VP Aspect (have; be) Vʾ CP (advl clause)
PP, NP (advl)
V NP (DO, IO, SC, OC2)
CP (said that ...)
PP (rely on ...)
AP ADVP ( very big) Aʾ PPloc/tem A CP (sure/glad/afraid that...)
PP (fond/afraid of...)
ADVP ADVP ( very fast) ADVʾ (rare) ADV PP (independently of ...)
PP ADVP (right in there) Pʾ PP (in some ways) P NP/PP (from behind…)
In-class exercise: Draw X-bar trees for the following: (i) identify phrasal categories (CP, IP, NP ...); (ii)
identify functional categories (Spec, Adjunct, Complement); (iii) draw trees using the
template, with the phrases positioned properly.
1. He is very fond of her in many ways.
2. Is he desperately in need of help?