help with assgn due in 3 days
Lecture Slides
by
Robert Tignor • Jeremy Adelman • Stephen Aron • Peter Brown • Benjamin Elman • Stephen Kotkin • Xinru Liu • Suzanne Marchand • Holly Pittman • Gyan Prakash • Brent Shaw • Michael Tsin
Lecture Slides
Chapter 2
RIVERS, CITIES, AND FIRST STATES, 3500-2000 BCE
Question of the Week
Briefly summarize one creation story from another culture’s mythology.
Uruk as the “First City”
Characteristics: encompassed 250 acres, supported a population of approximately 10,000 people
Monumental architecture: temples, sacred precincts, administrative buildings
Gardens, kilns for pottery, textile workshops
Functioned as a commercial center and an administrative center
Marked a new phase in human development and social organization
Concentration of economic, religious, and political power
Distinct social hierarchies
Rise of large cities connected to rise of territorial states
4
Development of Cities (3500 BCE)
Populations moved close to reliable water sources
Climate change (a worldwide warming cycle) led to longer growing seasons
Cities scarce and only in select areas
Labor specialization led to trade with outlying areas
Three areas developed between 3,500 and 2,000 BCE
Changed how humans farmed and fed themselves between 4,000 and 2,000 BCE
Intensive irrigation agriculture
More people moved to cities
Community organization
Changed how they worshiped
Cities scarce and only in select areas. They needed a stable river system and fertile soil. They also needed access to water for irrigation, availability of domesticated plants and animals, and agricultural surplus.
Labor specialization led to trade with outlying areas. Raw materials traded for finished goods and copper became very desirable for making bronze (the Bronze Age).
Three areas developed between 3,500 and 2,000 BCE: Tigris and Euphrates Basin (modern Iraq); Indus River Basin (modern Pakistan); Northern Nile River (modern Egypt). Similar developments occurred along the Yellow River in North China and the Yangzi River valley around 1,760 BCE.
The development of cities changed how people worshiped. Prayed to many zoomorphic and anthropomorphic gods. Kings and priests mediate between gods and ordinary people. New technologies develop.
5
The World in the Third Millennium BCE
WORLDS TOGETHER, WORLDS APART, 5TH EDITION
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Map 2.1 | The World in the Third Millennium BCE
Human societies became increasingly diversified as agricultural, urban, and pastoral nomadic communities expanded.
• In what different regions did pastoralism and river-basin societies emerge?
• Considering the geographic features highlighted on this map, why do you think cities appeared in the regions that they did?
• How did geographical and environmental factors promote interaction between nomadic pastoral and sedentary agricultural societies?
6
Characteristics of Early Cities
New technologies
Wheel for pottery and vehicles
Metallurgy and stone working
Urban–rural divide
Urban life characterized by mass production and specialization
Rural life characterized by closeness to nature; cultivated land and tended livestock
Two ways of life, interdependent
Closely linked through family ties, trade, politics, and religion
Intellectual advances in an urban setting
Writing systems
Rise of recordkeeping and epics
Importance of scribes
Writing systems used symbolic storage of words and meanings to extend communication and memory.
7
Smaller Settlements
Growth of smaller settlements in Afro-Eurasia around 3500 BCE
Most people lived in small, egalitarian village communities
Tools made of wood or stone
Traded meat and animal products for grain, pottery, and tools
Organized by clan and family allegiances
The Americas
Environmental factors limited size of settlements
Restricted production of surplus food
Sub-Saharan Africa
Followed same pattern as Americas
Shifts in population occurred because of desertification of Sahara Desert
Migrating groups maintained trading and cultural contacts
Largest population center in the Americas was the valley of Tehuacan, where corn provided surplus.
8
Pastoral Nomadic Communities
Transhumant herder communities
Herding and breeding of sheep, goats, horses, and cattle
Moved to periphery of settlements for pastures
About 3500 BCE, nomadic groups moved from highlands to lowlands in cyclical patterns
Small, impermanent settlements
Afro-Eurasia’s mountains and desert barriers
Steppe lands from inner and central Eurasia to Pacific Ocean
Lived next to and traded with settled agrarian people when in the lowlands. Horses became crucial to survival in steppe lands of Afro-Eurasia and in connecting cities and spreading ideas.
9
The Rise of Trade
Existence of settled communities increased need for trade
Luxuries traded
Obsidian
Trickle, or down-the-line, trade
Long-distance trade established by 5000 BCE for raw materials
Outposts established to coordinate and monitor resources
Trading stations or entrepôts at borders
Allowed for multiple forms of exchange
Pack-animal caravans
Pack-animal caravans included donkeys, wild asses, and camels.
10
Between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers: Mesopotamia, 3500 BCE
Tapping the waters
Mesopotamia means “place between two rivers”
Tigris and Euphrates rivers wild and unpredictable; annual flooding and dry cycles don’t correspond to agricultural needs
Ingenious irrigation system created to harness water’s power
Area included modern-day Iraq, parts of Syria, and southeastern Turkey
First settlements in foothills of Zagros Mountains
Alluvial plains living required more sophisticated waterworks
Grew wheat, millet, sesame, and barley
Area included modern-day Iraq, parts of Syria, and southeastern Turkey.
Varied topography and unpredictable flooding; unified by interlocking drainage basin. Rivers provided irrigation and served as transportation routes.
First settlements in foothills of Zagros Mountains. Simple irrigation led to higher agricultural yields.
Alluvial plains living required more sophisticated waterworks including levees, ditches, canals, water-lifting devices, and water storage.
Grew wheat, millet, sesame, and barley. Barley used for diet staple, beer. Annual planting led to soil depletion, accumulation of salts.
11
Crossroads of Southwest Asia
Mesopotamia had few natural resources other than rich soils and abundant water
Needed to trade with surrounding areas
Open boundaries made for easy maintenance of trading contacts
Good soil, water, and trade led to growth of cities
Became meeting ground for several different cultures
Sumerians from the south
Hurrians from the north
Akkadians from the west and central areas
Needed to trade with surrounding areas: cedar wood from Lebanon, copper and stones from Oman, copper from Turkey and Iran, and lapis lazuli and tin from Afghanistan.
12
The World’s First Cities
Fourth millennium BCE: migration from rural villages to growing city centers
Early cities grew gradually over 1,000 years
Buildings of mud brick, successive layers of urban development
Eridu
Cities were meeting places for peoples and their deities; therefore centers where political, religious, and economic power intersected
Urban design reflected city’s greatness
City-states developed
Man was created solely to serve the gods
City design reflected growing social hierarchies
Fourth millennium BCE: migration from rural villages to growing city centers—Eridu, Nippur, Uruk.
Eridu
Home to Sumerian water god, Ea; sacred site with temples
Temple rebuilt over 20 times, more elaborate each time
Over 35 cities with major divine sanctuaries throughout Mesopotamia
Urban design reflected city’s greatness: sheep-folds, suburbs, common layout.
City-states developed: common culture, intense trade, shared environment.
13
Gods and Temples
Each god occupied a major floodplain city
God’s character shaped city’s society and culture
Temples were homes of gods and symbols of urban identity
Altars held cult images
Stepped platform called ziggurat by 3000 BCE
Temple was the god’s estate
Housed priests, officials, laborers, and servants
Engaged in productive and commercial activities
Enormous workforce
Workshops produced textiles and leather goods
Employed skilled craftsmen
Worldview of Sumerians and Akkadians shaped by belief that numerous gods controlled everything from politics to weather. Epic of Gilgamesh depicted the gods’ power and capricious nature.
14
The Palace and Royal Power
Palace complexes as expressions of power of ruling elites appeared around 2500 BCE
Defining landmark of city life
Palace became rival to temple
Located on outskirts of city
Became powerful expressions of secular, military, and administrative authority
Rulers tied their status to gods through burial arrangements
Royal cemetery at Ur
Royal cemetery at Ur has sixteen high-status graves. Graves contained bodies of sacrificial victims. Demonstrated elaborate burial festivals.
15
Social Hierarchy and Families
City-states run by assemblies of elders and young men
Empowered elite became permanent part of society
Rulers
Occupation determined social status
Movement between economic groups unusual
Independent merchants risked long-distance trade
Family households also hierarchical
Senior male patriarch–dominated
Single-family household
Most women lived in contract marriages
A few women joined the temple as priestesses
Rulers had privileged access to economic and political resources. They used bureaucracy, priesthood, and law. Priests and bureaucrats served the rulers.
Occupation determined social status: king and priest, bureaucrats, supervisors, specialized craft workers, male and female workers.
Single-family household usually had a husband and wife bound by contract. Monogamy was the norm. Sons inherited in equal shares. Daughters received dowry gifts. Adoption used if no male heir.
A few women joined the temple as priestesses. By 2000 BCE, women could own estates and productive enterprises. Fathers or brothers still responsible for women.
16
First Writing and Early Texts
Precursor to writing appeared in Mesopotamia
First written history in Mesopotamian cities
First record keepers
Writing used to keep track of trade
Complex societies required a way to communicate between people and over distance
Ancient cuneiform script reveals Mesopotamian history
Wrote on clay tablets with reeds
Wedge-shaped writing: cuneiform
2400 BCE: political, historical, and economic events
Cuneiform adapted to different languages
Literacy spread and gave rise to written narratives
Rebus: transfer of name of thing to sounds. Writing: technology of symbols that used marks to record specific discrete sounds. First written history in Mesopotamian cities. Promoted power of temples and kings.
Scribes had high status in Mesopotamian society. Writing allowed for ideas to be transmitted across time and distance. Literacy limited to an influential scribe elite. Top of the social ladder. Scribes had high status in Mesopotamian society.
Wedge-shaped writing: cuneiform. First appeared around 3200 BCE.
Literacy spread and gave rise to written narratives: the temple hymns, 2100 BCE; Sumerian King List, 2000 BCE, includes Great Flood story.
17
Growing Cities and the First Territorial States
Early Dynastic Age (2850–2334 BCE)
Akkadian territorial state (2334–2193 BCE)
Sargon sponsored monumental architecture, artworks, and literature
Sargon increased geographic influence
Akkad capital conquered by tribesmen from Zagros Mountains in 2190 BCE
Spread of cities led to instability due to competition for resources: land, water, and control over trade routes
Expansion of cities led to rivalries and competition for supremacy
Cultural achievements of Akkadian rule extended Mesopotamian influence
Akkadian territorial state (2334–2193 BCE) was Founder King Sargon the Great of Akkad (r. 2334–2279 BCE). He united southern Mesopotamian cities. He created first multiethnic collection of urban centers—the territorial state.
18
The Spread of Cities in Mesopotamia and the Akkadian State, 2600–2200 BCE
WORLDS TOGETHER, WORLDS APART, 5TH EDITION
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Map 2.3 | The Spread of Cities in Mesopotamia and the Akkadian State, 2600–2200 BCE
Urbanization began in the southern alluvium of Mesopotamia and spread northward. Eventually, the region achieved unification under Akkadian power.
• According to this map, what were the natural boundaries of the Mesopotamian cities?
• How did proximity to the Zagros Mountains affect the new urban centers?
• How did the expansion northward reflect the continued influence of geographic and environmental factors on urbanization?
19
The Gift of the Nile: Egypt
Ancient Egypt was a melting pot
People came from Sinai, Libya, Nubia, and central Africa
Blended cultural practices and technologies
Much in common with Mesopotamia
Egypt geography distinct
The Nile River is the longest river in the world
Two branches: Blue (source in Ethiopia) and White (southern Sudan)
Annual floods created green belts along the river; away from the river was desert
Early basin irrigation system devised
Never-failing sun ensured abundant harvests
Much in common with Mesopotamia: dense population, depended on irrigation, monumental architecture, rulers had immense authority, and complex social order.
Egypt geography distinct: Nile River, desert, limited cultivatable land.
The Nile River is the longest river in the world—4,238 miles—and flows from south to north. Source in the African highlands. People migrated to Nile Valley from south.
Most people lived close to the river. Egypt was the most river focused of the river-basin cultures. Nile’s flood patterns were predictable, leading people to view the world optimistically.
Early basin irrigation system was devised and led to new layer of topsoil each year. Never-failing sun ensured abundant harvests and led to a sun-worshipping culture.
20
The Nile and Egyptian Culture
Egypt’s unique river-basin culture
Geography led to development of Egyptian culture
Less open to outsiders than Mesopotamia
A common culture despite differences between Lower (northern) and Upper (southern) Egypt
Pharaoh needed to provide stability—ma’at and keep chaos at bay
Ma’at allowed all that was good to occur
Geography led to development of Egyptian culture. Boundaries included Mediterranean Sea in the north, deserts to the east and west, and huge waterfalls to the south.
21
The Rise of the Egyptian State and Dynasties
Egypt developed more rapidly than Mesopotamia
King’s task was to control nature, especially the Nile floods, and protect his people from invaders
Egypt had a large clerical class
Invaders threatened from east and south
Egyptian history organized by dynasties
Thirty-one dynasties
Periods of weak authority between kingdoms
Thirty-one dynasties: Old Kingdom (2649–2152 BCE), Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BCE), and New Kingdom (1550–1070 BCE).
Periods of weak authority between kingdoms: First, Second, Third Intermediate Periods.
22
Pharaohs, Rituals, Pyramids, and Cosmic Order
The Old Kingdom (2686–2613 BCE), the golden age of Egypt
Ruler as god who possessed divine powers
Many symbols and special names for power
Cosmic order as unequal and hierarchical
Pharaoh’s power derived from his godhood
Gods were serene, orderly, merciful, and perfect
Rulers built and used impressive architecture
Step pyramid complex served as a stage for rituals
Pharaoh, king as god, used tomb to embody the state’s ideology
Origin of the myth that death leads to everlasting life
Rulers built and used impressive architecture. Sed festival renewed vitality of king. Intended to ensure perpetual presence of water. King Djoser (r. 2630–2611 BCE) celebrated at Saqqara. World’s oldest stone edifice at Saqqara. Began as a mastaba (“bench”). Imhotep was architect. Six renovations led to step pyramid.
23
Pyramids, Religion, and the Cults of the Gods
Pyramid building evolved rapidly
Fourth dynasty kings built Giza pyramids
Royal tombs are nearby
Religion
Religion at the center of this world
Egyptians understood the world as inhabited by three groups
Gods evolved over time and could be represented in animal and human forms
Official religious rituals took place in temples
Kings cared for gods in their temples
Contractual relationship between gods and humans
Humans had active role in their belief in gods’ powers
Most enduring cult was of the goddess Isis
Fourth dynasty kings built Giza pyramids. Pyramid of Khufu, largest stone structure in the world. Khafra’s pyramid guarded by Sphinx. Enormous amount of labor required to build pyramids: peasants and workers, slaves from Nubia, and captured Mediterranean peoples.
Egyptians understood the world as inhabited by three groups: gods, kings, and the rest of humanity.
Each region had different gods, such as Amun in Thebes. Gods evolved over time and could be represented in animal and human forms: Horus, the hawk god; Osiris, god of regeneration and underworld; Hathor, god of childbirth and love; Ra, the sun god; Amun, a creator, considered the hidden god.
Humans had active roles in their belief in the gods’ powers. Cult required rituals and communication with gods. Most enduring cult was of the goddess Isis, wife of Osiris. Represented sisterhood and motherhood.
24
The Power of the Priests
Religion
The priesthood
Priesthood responsible for rituals
Elaborate rules
Helped unify Egypt
Unofficial popular religions also existed
Ordinary people visited local shrines
Magical powers
Important to commoners
Amulets
Omens and divination
Animals believed to have supernatural powers
Priests had extensive training and were highly stratified. Only priests could enter temple. Gods left temples only in portable shrines.
25
Writing and Scribes
Literacy shaped divisions between rural and urban life
Egyptian script complicated
Became simpler over time
Most high-ranking Egyptians were trained as scribes
Worked for king’s court, army, or priesthood
Two basic forms of Egyptian writing
Hieroglyphs, “sacred carving”
Demotic writing, cursive script
Scribes held a special place in society
Training for scribes
Started young
Entered bureaucracy
Hieroglyphs, “sacred carving,” was used in temple, royal, or divine contexts.
More Egyptians than Mesopotamians were literate. Sometimes kings and royal family could write.
Demotic writing, cursive script was the most common and practical writing. It was used in administrative records, private writing, literature, manuals, and other texts.
Scribes held a special place in society: trade records, religious records, historical records, and literature.
Literacy considered a high achievement that conferred status and power and commanded respect. Literate people were buried with textbooks.
26
Prosperity and the Demise of Old Kingdom Egypt
Decline and collapse
A strong bureaucratic state but not united under one powerful city; power was dispersed
Dynasties became more outward looking
Collapse caused by internal weakness and feuding among elite political factions
Extended drought throughout Afro-Eurasia strained Egypt’s irrigation system
Nile no longer provided sufficient water, food supply declined, increased suffering
High levels of prosperity promoted population growth: 350,000 in 4000 BCE, 1 million in 2500 BCE, and 5 million in 1500 BCE.
Pepys II (2278–2184 BCE), last ruler of the Old Kingdom. His death marked collapse of royal power, followed by First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BCE).
Characteristics of the First Intermediate Period include:
Local and regional leaders assumed more power and control. Rivals fought for control of the throne. Regional struggles over water and land. Period came to an end around the time that century-long drought ended. Legacies of Old Kingdom, including institutions and beliefs, endured and were later revived.
27
The Indus River Valley: A Parallel Culture
Harappa, on banks of Ravi River 3000 BCE
Urban culture
Early settlements along foothills of Baluchistan Mountains
Fertile soils yielded surplus, generated greater wealth; trade
Fortified cities established with major public works
Indus Valley boasted many ecological advantages
Predictable flooding from Himalaya Mountains snow runoff
No torrential monsoons as on the Ganges River plain
Wheat and barley planted after waters receded
Food surplus freed many inhabitants from having to grow food
Specialization and urbanization led to growing cities
Two largest cities—35,000 inhabitants—Harappa and Mohenjo Daro.
28
The Indus River Valley in the Third Millennium BCE
WORLDS TOGETHER, WORLDS APART, 5TH EDITION
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Map 2.5 | The Indus River Valley in the Third Millennium BCE
Historians know less about the urban society of the Indus Valley in the third millennium BCE than they do about its contemporaries in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Still, archaeological evidence gives insight into this urban complex.
• Where were cities concentrated in the Indus Valley?
• How did the region’s environment shape urban development?
• What functions do you think outposts such as Lothal played in Harappan society?
29
Harappan City Life and Writing
Harappan culture zone two or three times larger than Mesopotamian culture zone due to size of its vast floodplain
Urban life in Harappan cities
Less is known about Harappan culture
Many sites remain buried under deep silt deposits as a result of persistent flooding
Cannot identify spoken language
400-symbol script; may be a nonlinguistic symbol system
Only stamp seals found
Unable to catalog its political history
30
Reconstructing Harappa: Archeology
What is known is due to archaeological reconstructions of key sites
Harappan cities and towns followed same general pattern
Citadels were likely centers of political and ritual activities
Mohenjo Daro citadel contained a great bath
Houses for notables, city walls, and water drainage all built from brick
Well-built houses contained bathrooms, showers, and toilets
Municipal sewer systems
Harappan cities and towns followed same general pattern: fortified citadels and residential area and main street with covered drainage.
31
Trade in the Indus River Valley
Along Indus River, into Iranian plateau to the Persian Gulf
Traded raw and finished goods for gold, silver, gemstones, and textiles
Trade towns located in remote but strategic sites such as Lothal located on Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay)
Provided access to the sea and to raw materials
Precious gemstones such as carnelian were sought after
Other stones had to be imported
Metals such as copper and silver were mined
Used script and weights and measures in trade
Uniformity of Harappan sites suggests a centralized structured state
32
The Yellow and Yangzi River Basins in East Asia
The future Chinese state originated along the Yellow River and the Yangzi River
Chinese culture slower to develop than Mesopotamia, Indus River, and Egyptian cultures
Remained a localized agrarian culture
Lack of easily domesticated animals and plants
Geographical barriers prevent large-scale migrations between East Asia and Central Asia
Geographical barriers prevent large-scale migrations between East Asia and Central Asia.
Examples include Himalayan Mountain Range and Taklamakan and Gobi deserts.
33
The Yellow River Basin
Important developments between 4000 and 2000 BCE
Climate and geography
Warmer and moister climate around 4000 BCE, abundance of lakes, size of central plains region divided people
Evidence showing eight distinct regional cultures emerging
Cycle of cooler, drier weather dried up lakes and landmass becomes a single geographical unit
Led to more interactions among distinct groups
Mongolian steppe allowed new technologies through trade and migration
Nomads eventually settled on the rivers in more complex cultures
Yellow River basin evidence challenges traditional history and claims about Xia as original dynasty and origins of imperial tradition dating to 2200 BCE.
China was never completely isolated like the Americas. Mongolian steppe peoples and nomads introduced new technologies and innovations.
34
River-Basin Peoples in East Asia, 5000–2000 BCE
WORLDS TOGETHER, WORLDS APART, 5TH EDITION
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Map 2.6 | River-Basin Peoples in East Asia, 5000–2000 BCE
Complex agricultural societies emerged in East Asia during the third millennium BCE.
• What were the regional cultures that flourished here during this time?
• What are the major geographic differences between the northern and southern regions of China in this period?
• Considering the geographical differences between the areas, how were these cultures different, and how were they similar?
35
From Yangshao to Longshan Cultures
Two river basins, two cultures
Major divide between people of Yellow and Yangzi river basins
Yangshao culture emerges in Yellow River region in north, based on millet cultivation
Early Chinese river-basin societies
Produced stone and pottery storage vessels
Contrast with simpler artifacts in Yangshao
Deer scapulas or oracle bones used by diviners
Longshan people likely migrated from peripheries
Developed between 5000 and 2000 BCE
Several regions shared similar pottery and tools
Likely came into contact with other regions
No city-states, but agriculture flourished
Yangshao culture emerges in Yellow River region in north, based on millet cultivation. Yangshao pottery showed signs and symbols by 5000 BCE. Shamans, many of them women, used signs in performing rituals.
Early Chinese river-basin societies produced stone and pottery storage vessels. Longshan black pottery and town enclosure found.
36
Urbanization and Longshan Culture
From Yangshao to Longshan cultures
Longshan showed beginnings of urban life
Buried dead in cemeteries outside of village, increased technical sophistication
Shaman performed rituals using jade axes
Organized violence
More interregional contact
Short-lived and scattered political organizations
Buried dead in cemeteries outside of village, increased technical sophistication. Tombs contained multiple objects.
Shaman performed rituals using jade axes. Jade quarrying required advanced technology.
Organized violence. Mass grave with scalped household members. Defensive wall found.
More interregional contact. Migration to East Asian coast. Objects show a shared cultural and trading sphere.
Short-lived and scattered political organizations. Era of Ten Thousand States (Wan’guo).
37
Liangzhu Culture
Sophisticated agriculturalists
Grew rice and fruits along the Qiantang River
Used tools and domesticated animals
Familiar with watercraft
Stone and bone artifacts highly developed
Produced black pottery
Created ritual objects from jade
38
Third Millennium Droughts and Climate Change
Chinese recovered and created elaborate agrarian systems during second millennium BCE
Similar civilizations to those along Euphrates, Indus, and Nile rivers
Extensive trade networks
Highly stratified social hierarchy
Centralized polity
Chinese social and political systems diverged
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley at the end of the third millennium
Societies flourished and grew more complex in a wet and cool climate
Developments interrupted beginning around 2200 BCE due to a warming climate
Widespread drought hampered progress and led to forced migrations. Chinese recovered and created elaborate agrarian systems during second millennium BCE—Yellow River and Yangzi River.
Chinese social and political systems diverged. Emphasized an idealized past. Political Tradition—Sage Kings, and there was a rising scholarly elite.
Developments interrupted beginning around 2200 BCE due to a warming climate. In Egypt, Nile stopped flooding; in Mesopotamia, rivers changed course; and in the Indus Valley, rivers changed course.
Led to social and political chaos, disruption, changes in settlement and cultivation patterns. Shift from wheat to millet in Gujarat.
39
Life Outside the River Basins
Societies expand more slowly
Warrior-based ethos
Chiefs and military men were top social tier
More egalitarian than river-basin dwellers
Politically less centralized
Aegean worlds
Geography slowed pace of urban development
Small, scattered settlements separated by natural obstacles
Crete traded with other regions. Communities remained small villages. Knossos of Crete emerged, second millennium BCE.
40
Settlements on the Margins: The Eastern Mediterranean and Europe, 5000–2000 BCE
WORLDS TOGETHER, WORLDS APART, 5TH EDITION
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Map 2.7 | Settlements on the Margins: The Eastern Mediterranean and Europe, 5000–2000 BCE
Urban societies in Southwest Asia had profound influences on peripheral societies.
• What three peripheral worlds did the urban societies of Southwest Asia influence?
• In what ways did the spread of flint and copper tools and weapons transform Aegean and European societies?
• How did agriculture spread from Southwest Asia to these worlds?
41
Anatolia
Regional cultures emerged because of trade routes
Small cities emerged around fortified citadels
Horoz Tepe
Alaça Hüyük
Troy an important third millennium BCE site
Made famous in Homer’s Iliad
Modern mound of Hissarlik
First rediscovered in 1870
Well fortified with monumental stone gateways
Troy II had five buildings called megarons
Artifacts of active trade system linked Aegean and Southwest Asia
Troy II had five buildings called megarons. Megarons were forerunners of Greek temples.
Artifacts of active trade system linked Aegean and Southwest Asia. Immense wealth derived from gateway into Southwest Asia.
42
Europe: The Western Frontier
Hierarchies replaced older egalitarian ways
Warfare dominated social development
Frequent conflicts over resources
Large communities evident by 3500 BCE
Construction of large fixed monuments
Megalith, “great stone” around 2000 BCE
Corded ware pots
Increased interaction led to more wealth and warfare
Surpluses and desire for land led to more tribal warfare
Common material culture based on agriculture, herding, the plow, and the use of wheeled vehicles and metal tools and weapons
Early Europeans formed small, permanent settlements and created complex societies. Plowing and clearing woodlands expanded agriculture. Households and small communities organized irrigation and settlements. Flint mining an example of social and cultural change. Made resources cheaper, so more tools were available and more communities flourished.
Megalith, “great stone,” around 2000 BCE: Avebury and Stonehenge.
Increased interaction led to more wealth and warfare. Burials with drinking cups, “bell beakers”—sign of warrior culture. Agricultural communities produced surpluses.
43
Warfare and European Development
Western societies battled over territory and resources
Warfare led to need for better weapons
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin
Weapons produced in bulk
Trade network distributed weapons
Rivers used to exchange metal products; first commercial networks
Warfare and warrior elites a source of innovation and expanded communication and exchange
Western societies battled over territory and resources. Agriculture and metalworking part of daily life.
Warfare and warrior elites a source of innovation and expanded communication and exchange. Fueled demand for weapons, alcohol, and horses.
44
The Americas
Environmental factors limited the size of human settlements
Sophisticated technologies (pottery, textiles, irrigation) but little to no exchange with other societies
Evidence of an elaborate religious and ceremonial life
Domestication of maize (corn) sometime around 3500 BCE supports growing population
Valley of Tehuacán (Central Mexico)
Dense populations living in independent villages
Dense populations living in independent villages. Access to and use of water significant. Example of high population densities and cultural sophistication without urbanization or a centralized state structure.
45
Sub-Saharan Africa
Increase in rainfall and temperatures promoted settlements near lakes and rivers
Expansion of Sahara desert led to migration; people grew yams, palm, plantains, millet, and sorghum
Increasing population strained available resources, led to more migration—south toward Congo River and Lake Nyanza
Permanent settlements take shape, but they were hundreds or thousands of miles apart
Some evidence of trade and cultural contact
Pattern similar to that of the Americas: population growth but people not concentrated in urban communities.
Some evidence of trade and cultural contact. Similar shape and designs on pottery.
46
Conclusion
Near some giant rivers, complex human cultures emerged
Ceremonial sites and trading entrepôts became cities
Sharper distinction between urban and rural dwellers
Urbanization shaped social and cultural distinctions
River-basin cultures distinct, but shared common features
Some areas showed social developments in trade and agriculture but followed a different pattern than river-basin cultures
Social and political developments were affected by climate and geography
Most densely populated regions. Occupation specialization and social hierarchy. Rising material standards of living and highly developed systems of art and science. Centralized production and distribution of food, cloth, and other goods.
Ceremonial sites and trading entrepôts became cities. Centralized religious and political systems emerged and scribes, priests, and rulers labored to keep complex societies together.
Urbanization shaped social and cultural distinctions. It affected the roles of men and women.
River-basin cultures distinct, but shared common features. Single rivers such as Nile or the Indus and floodplains such as Tigris or Euphrates. Later, Chinese culture developed along Yellow and Yangzi rivers.
Areas that showed social developments in trade and agriculture but followed a different pattern than river-basin cultures included Anatolia, Aegean, Europe, parts of China, the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa.
47
This concludes the Lecture Slide Set for Chapter 2
WORLDS TOGETHER, WORLDS APART
FIFTH EDITION
by
Robert Tignor • Jeremy Adelman • Stephen Aron • Peter Brown • Benjamin Elman • Stephen Kotkin • Xinru Liu • Suzanne Marchand • Holly Pittman • Gyan Prakash • Brent Shaw • Michael Tsin