discussion and abstract
Abstract & Discussion Nov 14, 2022
Slides adapted from Joe Pirozzolo, Don Foss, et al.
Proposal Outline
Title page (1)
Abstract (1)
Introduction (3-5)
Significance
Literature review
Gaps in knowledge
Specific aims
Hypothesis
Method (2-3+)
Discussion(2+)
References (1)
References
Main Body
Abstract
Title page
Abstract
The last paragraph written, but the most important paragraph (sort of…)
Provides the reader with a brief summary of the study
A short report, not an evaluation
No personal comments!
Do not include limitations
References
Main Body
Abstract
Title page
Abstract: Six Key Elements
In this order:
Begin with one or two sentences explaining the topic, the research question or the significance of the study.
This is akin to the first paragraph of your intro, condensed down to a single sentence.
Briefly introduce the participants (how many, from what population)—should not take more than one sentence.
State the main hypothesis/hypotheses.
This is akin to the final paragraph of your intro, condensed down to a single sentence.
Abstract: Six Key Elements
Describe what methods were used and give a very concise, high-level/conceptual overview of the procedure.
Experimental vs. non-experimental?
Psychophysics? Physiology? Accuracy or response time? Survey? Test instruments?
Most important IV(s) or PV(s), most important DV(s) or CV(s)
Were the results significant? Was the hypothesis supported? (For YOUR papers- briefly discuss expected results)
Don’t discuss any statistics
Expected results
Alternatives to the expected results
What conclusions can be reached from these findings, and what are their implications? (For YOUR papers- briefly discuss possible conclusions). This should only be 1-3 sentences.
Abstract: Formatting the Content
The Abstract is short (150-250 words)- 1 PAGE
Be clear, concise, and specific
Do not include information that is not also covered in the Main Body. This is an executive summary!
Use past tense to describe manipulations or description of the study, and present tense to describe results & conclusions
Abstract: Formatting in APA
The second page of the paper; its own page!
Running head (for professional papers) and page numbers (for all papers)
The word “Abstract” is centered and bold
Do not indent the first line
Double-spaced
No first person
Avoid citations
Use numerals for all numbers, except for those that begin a sentence
See lab manual
Abstract Example
Abstract
Cultural values may play a significant role in persuasion, reactance, and the perception of sufficient justification necessary to reduce reactance. Because of the distinct viewpoints regarding group obligations, goals, and satisfaction, people from collectivistic and individualistic cultures may view such justifications differently. In the present study, 240 participants were exposed to different explanations regarding the elimination of a personal freedom and responded to measures assessing collectivism/individualism and trait reactance. It was expected that participants would be the most reactive when no justification was provided and the least reactive when the provided justifications match their belief systems. Significant results from this study can be applied to message framing and persuasion targeted at different cultures.
Abstract Questions?
Discussion Section
Purpose of the discussion
To interpret the results (expected results)
What do they actually mean?
To discuss the implications of the study
What influence will this study have on psychology, science, and society?
Purpose of the discussion
To integrate your study with other areas of research...
Tie your findings back to previous research.
What makes your study different from previous studies?
(Why did you get different results from past studies?)
Discuss how your findings fit within what is already known about the topic
This is where you get more citations
To provide a framework for future studies
How is the discussion different from the introduction?
The purpose of the discussion is not to restate the introduction
The introduction is supporting the need for the study you are proposing, whereas,
The discussion is stating the implications of the results
Recipe for a good discussion
(Expected) Results
Previous research
Implications
Application
Unexpected factors
Limitations
Future research
Conclusion
8 key ingredients for a strong discussion
Expected Results
Restate the purpose & hypothesis of the study
Be more specific about your expected results than you were in the hypothesis you made in the introduction
Discuss the hypothesis/hypotheses in the same order used in the introduction
Since you are discussing all your hypotheses, you should discuss all your possible outcomes (e.g., “art therapy resulted in reduced symptoms,” AND “art therapy had no effect,” AND “art therapy increased symptoms”), though you can give more space/discussion to your most likely expected outcome (e.g., “art therapy resulted in reduced symptoms”)
2. Previous research
Connect your “expected results” to previous research –
Why were these results expected (or not)?
How do they change the interpretation of previous research?
Implications
How does this study influence the topic being investigated if your hypothesis is supported?
How does this study influence the topic if your hypothesis is rejected?
How does this study benefit science? Society?
Application
How can the findings from this study be practically applied?
Implications & Application
Since you will not be able to conduct an actual study you will have to discuss the hypothetical impact of your results
If the hypothesis is supported:
What is the impact on science?
Application: What is the clinical significance (impact on the treatment of diseases/disorders)?
If the study was done on animals, how are the results relevant for humans?
If the hypothesis is NOT supported: (same)
Discuss BOTH scenarios: your hypothesis/hypotheses IS/ARE or IS/ARE NOT supported.
Implications: Example
If the hypothesis that yoga is correlated with better treatment outcomes in depression than traditional aerobic exercise is correct:
These results would support the growing body of evidence that states that physical activity is important for overcoming depressive symptoms
These results would demonstrate that exercise with a meditative component has added benefits.
In the future, clinicians will be able to make more specific recommendations for the type of exercise that will benefit a client.
Implications: Example
If my hypothesis is NOT correct:
…because yoga and aerobic exercise produce equal results, it may be that any exercise is important for the treatment of depression and that the particular type of exercise does not matter
…because aerobic exercise is in fact better than yoga, it may be that the aerobic component of exercise is the key to increasing mood-boosting neurotransmitters.
Unexpected factors
What factors may affect the results in an unexpected way? What alternative explanations are possible for the results?
Limitations
No study is perfect, what may be a problem for your study?
Critique yourself
Biases, inappropriate measures, sample size, only a male confederate, only assessed females, age range…
Be careful not too be too critical though, you don’t want to make your study look bad
Acknowledge Limitations
You have already criticized the other studies. Now you have to criticize your own!
Tell the reader the weaknesses of your study.
This actually will benefit you- you will show the reader that you have considered other factors
What are some other ways you could have arrived at your conclusions? This is where threats to validity come in. Validity reminders: next slide.
Internal Validity
Definition: the extent to which the study reduces uncertainty about the cause/effect relationship you wish to establish.
Remember: in science you can never know anything is 100% true, but you can reduce uncertainty!
This is a good thing. We want our study to have internal validity.
How to avoid these pitfalls (review)
Random selection/assignment
Use of a control group
Use of a pretest (although not always necessary)
External Validity
Definition: the extent to which the results from a study can be generalized or applied to other settings/populations
State in your discussion: Does your study have external validity? Why or why not?
Future Research
If your hypothesis was supported…
What direction should researchers take this topic next?
What questions may your study be unable to answer?
What variables, or what additional populations, could be studied next time?
If your hypothesis was rejected…
[same]
Conclusion (“mini-discussion”)
Summarize the objectives, hypothesis, results, implications, limitations, & future directions
Resources for writing the Discussion
Google Scholar! You need more cites!
Intro required 7 cites
You may have added cites in your Methods (and if so, great!)
You must have a total of 12 cites of peer-reviewed, empirical, scholarly primary sources in your FINAL paper including all sections
At least 3 of those cites (of the 12+) must be in the DISCUSSION
See lab manual for further info on what should be in a Discussion and for examples