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Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2012, 21, 43-52, © 2012 West Virginia University

The Role of Mega-Sports Event Interest in Sponsorship and Ambush Marketing Attitudes

Eric Macintosh, John Nadeau, Benoit Seguin, Norm O'Reilly, Cheri L. Bradish, and David Legg

Eric Macintosh, PhD, is an assistant professor in the School of Human Kinetics at the University of Ottawa. His research interests focus on sport marketing, organizational culture and theory. John Nadeau, PhD, is an associate professor of marketing in the School of Business at Nipissing University. His research interests include consumer behaviour, the application of images, tourism marketing, sport marketing, and sport finance. North Bay, Ontario, Canada Benoit Seguin, PhD, is an associate professor of sport management in the School of Human Kinetics at the University of Ottawa. His research interests include sport sponsorship, consumer behavior, branding, the Olympic Games, and ambush marketing. Norm O'Reilly, PhD, is an associate professor in the School of Human Kinetics at the University of Ottawa. His research interests include sport marketing and sport finance. Cheri L. Bradish, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Sport Management at Brock University. Her research interests include Olympic marketing, corporate social responsibility and sport, sport marketing and sponsorship, regional sport commissions, and sport management education. David Legg, PhD, is an associate professor and the program coordinator for Sport & Recreation at Mount Royal University. His research interests include sport management and adapted physical activity.

Abstract

Sponsorship of mega-sports events continues to be one of the most popular forms of marketing. The inter- national appeal and reach of the Olympic Games, in particular, is amongst the top advertising and sponsor- ship opportunities in the world for international branding. In turn, the marketing value provided by the Olympic Games has attracted the interest of multiple sponsors in various categories, leading to competitive hosting bids and ambush marketing. This study examined mega-sports event interest as a determinant of sponsorship and ambush marketing attitudes, as well as the purchase intention of affiliated properties dur- ing the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Winter Games. In total, 619 consumer surveys were collected ftom four different Canadian cities. Results showed that overall consumer interest was high, and that their purchase intention was strongly influenced by level of interest.

The Role of Mega-Sports Event Interest in Sponsorship and Ambush Marketing Attitudes The sponsorship of mega-sports events has become a marketing tool of choice for corporations seeking reach and branding impact both globally, nationally, and locally within the host city and country. Mega- sports events are capable of transmitting "promotional messages to billions of people via television and other developments in telecommunications" (Home & Manzenreiter, 2006, p. 2). In particular, the Olympic Games, and the global sponsorship program known as "The Olympic Programme" (TOP), has become a widely regarded sport marketing initiative.

Since the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics displayed the marketing prowess of the Olympic brand, multiple large scale international organizations have desired affiliation. Indeed, research has shown that the TOP Programme has benefited both the sponsors (Seguin, Lyberger, O'Reilly, & McCarthy, 2005) and the rights- holder; the International Olympic Committee (IOC) (Rozin, 2000). The IOC's 2005-2008 (i.e., TOP VI pro- gram) brought revenues in excess of US $866 million from nine sponsors (IOC, 2010) and the 2009-2012 (TOP VII program) is expected to exceed US $1 billion in rights fees from its 11 TOP sponsors. The most recent edition of the IOC's bi-annual Games took place in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Above the monies generated by the 2005-2008 quadrennial.

Volume 21 • Number 1 • 2012 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 43

the Vancouver Olympic Games Organizing Committee (VANOC) generated an additional CDN $760 million (VANOC, 2008) in domestic (national) sponsorship monies. Given the amount of international exposure and the considerable monetary investments to become an officially recognized sponsor (e.g., non-alcoholic beverage), understanding the consumer's perspectives on sponsorship activities is critical for sponsors.

The high interest and intense competition from other corporations wishing to benefit from the global mega-sports event platform has created some promi- nent issues for the IOC; namely the need for increased protection of sponsors from ambush marketing organ- izations (Seguin & O'Reilly, 2008). Ambush marketing is known to be "a planned effort (campaign) by an organization to associate itself indirectly with an event in order to gain at least some of the recognition and benefits that are associated with being an official spon- sor" (Sandier & Shani, 1989, p. 11). In essence, this type of marketing tactic is meant to create confusion in the consumer's mind and hence gain the benefits of being an Olympic sponsor while weakening the com- petition's position (Meenaghan, 1994).

To date, few studies exist publicly on determining consumer perspectives regarding sponsorship and ambush marketing of mega-sports events. The research that does exist remains inconclusive. Sandier and Shani (1993) reported that 68.8% of their respondents indi- cated Olympic sponsorship had no impact on their purchase patterns. To the contrary, Stotlar (1993) reported that 66% of respondents indicated that Olympic sponsorship favourably affected their pur- chase habits. Finally, Seguin et al. (2005) found that 38% of respondents were more likely to consider sup- port of a sponsor, and 31% were more likely to pur- chase from an official sponsor. Hence, the strength of the relationship between sponsorship attitude and behavior remains rather ambiguous.

The purpose of the research was to examine the impact of consumer interest in the Olympics as a salient determinant of official and unofficial sponsor- ship attitudes. Secondly, it sought to determine the propensity by which purchase intention is influenced by cognitive and evaluative/affective dimensions as in the greater marketing literature, these relationships are thought to be critical to understanding consumer behavior (e.g., Folkes, 1988; Poon & Prendergast, 2006). In order to achieve these purposes, a series of demographic, cognitive and affective based questions were posed via a written questionnaire to consumers during the second week of the 2010 Olympic Winter Games regarding sponsorship and ambush marketing. This paper adds to the literature on mega-sports event marketing research (e.g., Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007)

44 Volume 21 • Number 1 • 2012 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

and contributes to the research on cognitive and affec- tive dimensions of the sponsorship of mega-sports event paradigm and the contribution these characteris- tics have in predicting sponsor-related conation; a key indicator of sponsorship success. The paper begins with a review of literature on Olympic sponsorship research and purchasing intentions to help frame the study. Research on the role of cognition and affective states in purchasing intention is also noted. Next, the hypotheses for the research are presented, and the method and data collection are outlined.

Literature Review The management of Olympic sponsorship is a complex undertaking given the various levels of sponsorship rights, which include the TOP programme (worldwide sponsor exclusivity), the Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (OCOG) program, [joint marketing program with the host country's National Olympic Committee (NOC) and OCOG (for a national sponsor- ship program)] and the NOC programmes (each of the 205 NOC's market their ovm Olympic marks for exclu- sive national sponsorship rights). In addition to these three levels of Olympic sponsorship, there are also inter- national sport federations, national sport federations, clubs, events, coaches and athletes that all have sponsor- ship programs complicating the Olympic sponsorship archetype. While these are not officially linked to the Olympic sponsorship program, they are an integral part of the Olympic system (see Chappelet & Kubler- Mabbott, 2008) and as such, its sponsorship landscape.

The presence of increased 'clutter' in the marketplace has challenged all sponsoring organizations to commu- nicate their products and services (Elliot & Speck, 1998; Rotfeld, 2002). This is certainly the case for the Olympics where clutter has been attributed to the con- fusion amongst consumers whom have reported diffi- culty in distinguishing between official and unofficial sponsors (Sandier & Shani, 1989, 1993; Shani & Sandier, 1998; Seguin et al., 2005). The presence of ambush marketing and the subsequent difficulties con- sumers have reported in distinguishing between official and unofficial sponsors have been postulated to influ- ence consumer's purchase intention (Seguin et al., 2005, Seguin & O'Reilly, 2008). Concomitantly, a per- son's level of interest may also be predictive of cona- tion (Koo, Quarterman, & Flynn, 2006; Wang, 2008). As a result, sponsor activation programs (i.e., invest- ment in leveraging the opportunity beyond the rights fees) have become an essential strategy for sponsors in their quest to 'claim their space' (i.e. break through the clutter), to engage consumers with their brands and to have positive return on their investments (Seguin & O'Reilly, 2008; Walliser, 2003).

Sponsorship effectiveness is often linked to its impact on consumers' intent to purchase sponsors' products (Chavanat, Martinent, & Ferrand, 2009; Daneshvary & Schwer, 2000). Although intent to pur- chase may not be the perfect indicator of sales (Crompton, 2004), it is generally viewed as a good measure (Walliser, 2003). Research has shown that sponsorship has positively influenced consumption, particularly if the association between sponsor and sponsee is a good fit (Cornwell, Pruitt, & van Ness, 2001; Grier et al., 2007; Koo, Quarterman, & Flynn, 2006; Mueller, 2007).

Currently, researchers are delving further into the mental impact and behavioral implications of sponsor- ship on consumers through examining cognitive and affective factors which are thought to further explain conation (e.g., Poon & Prendergast, 2006; Wang, 2008). Wang (2008) remarked that the availability of information, a person's motivation and their beliefs lead to various attributions and ultimately feelings and behaviors. Lacsniak, Decarlo and Ramaswami (2001) found that what a person attributes to a brand had a significant impact on their evaluation, and others have noted that behavior can be explained in part by a per- son's degree of interest (Lacey, Close, & Finney, 2010; Zaichkowsky, 1985). Interest in a particular product category or brand motivates a consumer to pay atten- tion to relevant information or seek out additional information pertaining to the object of interest as part of the purchase decision making process (Lacey et al., 2010). Thus, consumers tend to have a higher degree of familiarity with a brand of their interest compared to consumers with a low level of interest. Chavanat et al. (2009) commented that cognitive, affect and cona- tive dimensions could be analysed further to under- stand the hierarchy of effects on the sponsor and consumer behavior relationship.

Conceptual Development of Constructs This study examined several factors found to be of par- ticular relevance to sponsorship and ambush market- ing attitudes (cf, Seguin et al., 2005). Attitudes are generally viewed as containing cognition (beliefs), affect (emotions) and conation (intentions and actions) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1972). Poon and Prendergast (2006) maintained that cognition and affect infiuence behavior (i.e., purchase intention). As purchase intention is also thought to be a consequence of consumer interest (Chavanat et al, 2009; Lacey et al., 2010; Gwinner & Eaton, 1999), we also examined this further in the research. Specifically, respondents were asked to indicate their level of interest in the Winter and Summer Olympic Games, their beliefs about the fairness of official and unofficial sponsors as

well as their ability to distinguish between official and unofficial sponsors (i.e., cognitive), their evaluation of ambush marketing activities (i.e., affective), and their likelihood of supporting sponsoring organizations through the purchase of their products or services (i.e., conative).

Hypotheses HI = Respondents who have a higher level of

interest in the Olympic Games will have more positive sponsorship attitudes than those with lower levels of interest in the Games.

H2 = Respondents who have a higher level of interest in the Olympic Games will have more positive purchase intentions than those with lower levels of interest in the Games.

Study Context The 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games took place in Vancouver (city sports) and Whistler (moun- tain sports), British Columbia, Canada, between February 1 2 * and 2 8 * (Olympic Games) and March 1 2 * and 21^^ (Paralympic Games) 2010. The Vancouver Winter Olympic Games marked the third time that Canada has played host to the Olympics fol- lowing Montreal 1976 (Summer) and Calgary 1988 (Winter). The Vancouver Games were sponsored by nine TOP Sponsors (i.e.. Coke, Visa, McDonalds, Atos Origin, Samsung, Acer, Omega, Panasonic, GE) and six National Partners (Bell, HBC, RBC, Rona, GM, Petro Canada). Prior to hosting the Games, the Government of Canada passed Bill C-47, a piece of legislation known as the Olympic and Paralympic Marks Act (OPMA) which provided protection to the IOC and the official sponsors over and above the Trademarks Act which protects the intellectual property in general in Canada (see Ellis, Scassa, & Seguin, 2011).

Method This study employed a survey methodology to collect consumer perspectives on the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Winter Games. In order to obtain informa- tion from a wide demographic pool, a convenience sample using a mall intercept strategy and quota tech- nique was employed in four different cities across the country during the second week of the Vancouver Games. This timing helped ensure a level of standardi- zation across the various data collection sites.

Research Instrument The research instrument was based on the Consumer Perception Index used by O'Reilly et al. (2008) and constructed, in part, from earlier indexes developed by Sandier and Shani (1998), Lyberger and McCarthy

Volume 21 • Number 1 • 2012 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 45

Table 1. Principal Components Analysis Results from Survey

Dimension and Related Questionnaire Items ^ ^ ^ j ^ ^

Fairness Beliefs (Eigen value = 2.89) Q14 Advertising link of non-sponsors to Games Q15 Non-sponsor association with the Games is clever Q24 Commercial activities around the Games are fair Q32 Fair for non-sponsors to associate with Olympics Leadership Beliefs (Eigen value =1.48) Q21 Companies that sponsor are industry leaders Q29 Official sponsor are market leaders compared to non-sponsors Distinguish Beliefs (Eigen value =1.27) Q12 Distinguish between official and non-sponsors Q13 Sponsor did not paid a fee for official status Q22 Distinguish between sponsors and those who advertise Q28 Difficult to distinguish sponsor from non-sponsor (flipped) Commerce Evaluation (Eigen value =1.07) Q27 Olympic Games are over commercialized Q31 Olympics losing appeal due to excessive sponsorship Ambush Evaluation (Eigen value =1.80) Q16 Lower opinion of non-sponsors who associate with Games Q25 Willing to support if helping athletes 023 IOC Clean venue policy makes viewing more enjoyable 030 Illegitimate association with the Games is unethical Q34 Non-sponsors should not lead people to believe they sponsor Q35 Support official sponsor if they could be identified as such Q36 Annoyed by companies trying to associate 037 Government should pass laws to protect sponsor rights Purchase Intentions (Eigen value =6.05) Q17 Less likely to buy from company with illegitimate ties 018 Support company that is an Olympic sponsor Q19 Purchase is based on Olympic sponsorship and not advertising 020 Buy products from Olympic sponsors 026 Try to purchase products advertised 033 Official sponsor has no effect on my purchase patterns (flipped)

Factor Loadings

.694

.686

.551

.678

.700

.795

.783

.654

.536

.466

.809

.837

.408

.451

.559

.415

.589

.589

.520

.487

.548

.719

.761

.797

.655

.615

(2001), and Seguin et al. (2005) to gauge consumer agree. Questions asked respondents to indicate (for opinions on advertising, commercialization, sponsor- example) whether they can distinguish between official ship, ambush marketing and interest. The first part of and unofficial sponsors; whether they try to purchase the survey asked respondents to indicate their level of products that are advertised during the Olympics; interest (e.g., 1 = no interest at all, 5 = very interested) whether they make the distinction between companies in the 2010 Olympic Winter Games and other mega- that sponsor the Olympics and companies who only sports events (e.g.. Super Bowl, FIFA World Cup). In advertise during the telecast of the Olympic Games, order to arrive at a general understanding of the among other questions. The instrument also asked respondents levels of awareness regarding sponsorship, respondents to recall and list three official Olympic five questions were asked in a 'yes, no, I do not know' Sponsors. Finally, demographic questions were asked format (e.g., I am aware of the different levels of spon- (e.g., gender, age, education, household income) to sorship associated with the Olympics). Next, respon- describe the sample, dents were asked a total of 26 questions regarding their attitudes towards sponsorship and ambush marketing. ^«i« Collection Procedure These questions utilized a 5-point Likert scale I" «''der to arrive at similar sample size of respondents anchored with 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly ^"^ P"or t« data being collected, each researcher was

46 Volume 21 • Number 1 • 2012 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

tasked with finding a quota of 150 respondents from their city. To ensure an appropriate power analyses, it was determined apriori that a minimum of 400 survey responses would need to be collected for the four-city study. Using a street/mall intercept technique, people were approached in public spaces (e.g., shopping plaza) and asked if they would be willing to participate in a survey regarding their perspectives on sponsorship and ambush marketing of the Games. Data was collect- ed during the second week of the Games inclusively in the provinces of Alberta and Ontario. The sample con- sisted of respondents from a small city (approximate population: 70, 000), medium sized city (approximate population: 150, 000), and two larger cities (average approximate population: 1,000,000).

Results In total, 619 surveys were completed. Gender was bal- anced in comparison to the larger Canadian popula- tion. The majority (78.5%) of respondents had at least some university or college education. The respondents' age ranged from 18 to 77 with a mean of 31 years of age. Average household income was in the $60,000- 69,999 category. In total, 153 surveys were collected fiom the small city, 153 were collected from the medi- um sized city, and 135 respondents were from the first large city and 178 from the second large city. Overall, the level of interest for the Winter Olympic Games was high (M = 4.19, SD = 1.01), when compared with other mega-sport events such as the Summer Olympic Games (M = 3.74, SD = 1.11), the Stanley Cup (M = 3.5, SD = 1.39), the NFL Super Bowl (M = 3.25, SD = 1.57), the World Cup of Soccer (M = 2.77, SD = 1.51), and the X Games (M = 1.99, SD = 1.16).

Survey Constructs A principal component analysis was conducted to identify the underlying themes in the data. Table 1 presents the results of this exploratory analysis, which employed a Varimax rotation and found six dimen- sions of responses with Eigen values in excess of 1. The loadings for many of the items with their dimensions are relatively high. Where the loadings are not very high, the items are placed with the dimensions indicat- ing their strongest fit.

The results of the consumers' perspectives on spon- sorship and ambush marketing at the item and con- struct level and on the basis of higher and lower levels of interest are presented in Table 2. The level of inter- est that a consumer has with the Olympic Games was assessed based on a summary variable of two items; level of interest with the Winter Games (X = 4.10) and level of interest with the Summer Games (X = 3.83). Those with a higher level of interest were identified as

those with a rating in the approximate top third (n = 244) while those with a lower level of interest had a rating in the bottom third (n = 305). The higher and lower level of interest group was based on the frequen- cy of incidence at the cut-off values. This method allowed for the testing of those with a higher versus lower level of interest while filtering out the moderate range of responses.

Respondents with higher levels of interest in the Olympic Games were found to hold more critical atti- tudes about ambush marketing tactics overall than those with lower levels of interest (Eigen value = 1.80). In particular, the largest gaps between the two groups demonstrated that those with high levels of interest are more likely to support sponsors which help athletes (Higher Interest X = 4.23; Lower Interest X = 3.59; F = 61.76; p < .01), to view the IOC's clean venue policy as enhancing viewing enjoyment (Higher Interest X = 4.00; Lower Interest X = 3.65; F= 18.13; p < .01) and to support sponsors if they can be identified as official sponsors (Higher Interest X = 3.67; Lower Interest X = 3.33; F = 13.80; p < . 0 1 ) .

For the Leadership dimension (Eigen value = 1.49), those with more interest in the Olympic Games were more likely to view official sponsors as industry (Higher Interest X = 3.53; Lower Interest X = 3.20; F = 12.18; p < .01) or market (Higher Interest X = 3.50; Lower Interest X = 3.18; F = 13.01; p < .01) leaders. On the distinguish dimension (Eigen value = 1.27), three of the four items were significantly different, reflecting the notion that those with more interest in the Games can distinguish between official and unofficial sponsors bet- ter than those with lower interest in the Games. From the commerce dimension (Eigen value = 1.08), the con- verse relationship between higher and lower levels of Olympic interest appears to hold. In this case, those with lower levels of interest responded with higher mean scores for over-commercialization (Higher Interest X = 2.74; Lower Interest X = 3.06; F = 10.64; p < .01) and excessive sponsorship (Higher Interest X = 2.21; Lower Interest X = 2.67; F = 24.37; p < .01) than those with higher levels of interest.

The largest Eigen value (6.05) in the Factor Analysis was associated with the purchase intention dimension. There were six items contained in the factor and all six items supported the notion that those with more inter- est in the Olympic Games were more likely to purchase products from sponsors. This is most obvious with the largest gaps explicitly showing that those with higher interest will support (Higher Interest X = 3.43; Lower Interest X = 2.89; F = 26.17; p < .01) or buy products (Higher Interest X = 2.99; Lower Interest X = 2.45; F = 26.42; p < .01) from official sponsors.

Volume 21 • Number 1 • 2012 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 47

Table 2. Comparison of Mean Responses using ANOVA for Interest Level

Construct and Related Questionnaire Items Higher Interest n = 244 Means

Fairness Beliefs (Eigen value = 2.89) Q24 Commercial activities around the Games are fair Q15 Non-sponsor association with the Games is clever Q14 advertising link of non-sponsors to Games Q32 Fair for non-sponsors to associate with Olympics Leadership (Eigen value =1.48) Q21 Companies that sponsor are industry leaders Q29 Official sponsor are market leaders compared to

non-sponsors Distinguish Beliefs (Eigen value =1.27) Q13 Sponsor did not paid a fee for official status Q28 Difficult to distinguish sponsor from non-sponsor

(flipped) 012 Distinguish between official and non-sponsors Q22 Distinguish between sponsors and those who

advertise Commerce (Eigen value = 1.07) Q27 Olympic Games are over commercialized Q31 Olympics losing appeal due to excessive sponsorship Ambush Evaluation (Eigen value 1.80) Q25 Wuling to support if helping athletes Q23 IOC Clean venue policy makes viewing more enjoyable Q34 Non-sponsors should not lead people to believe

they sponsor Q35 Support official sponsor if they could be identified

as such Q37 Government should pass laws to protect sponsor rights Q16 Lower opinion of non-sponsors who associate

with Games Q30 Illegitimate association with the Games is unethical Q36 Annoyed by companies trying to associate Purchase Intentions (Eigen value 6.05) Q18 Support company that is an Olympic sponsor Q17 Less likely to buy from company with illegitimate ties Q20 Buy products from Olympic sponsors Q19 Purchase is based on Olympic sponsorship and

not advertising Q33 Official sponsor has no effect on my purchase

patterns (flipped) Q26 Try to purchase products advertised

Note: *p < .05, **p < .01

3.11 3.09 2.52 2.34

3.53 3.50

3.81 3.48

3.28 2.90

2.74 2.21

4.23 4.00 3.82

3.67

3.42 3.38

3.37 3.14

3.43 3.09 2.99 2.65

2.58

2.54

Lower Interest n = 305 Means

3.18 2.95 2.61 2.52

3.20 3.18

3.38 3.47

2.78 2.71

3.06 2.67

3.59 3.65 3.63

3.33

3.09 3.07

3.20 2.96

2.89 2.82 2.45 2.29

2.32

2.22

Diff.

.07

.14

.09

.18

.33

.32

.43

.01

.50

.19

.32

.46

.64

.35

.19

.34

.33

.31

.17

.18

.54

.27

.54

.36

.26

.32

F Stat

.59

1.65 .71

3.81

12.18 13.09

19.81 .01

27.33 4.28

10.64 24.37

61.76 18.13 3.98

13.80

10.53 7.97

2.69 3.25

26.17 6.49 26.42 13.30

7.14

11.56

Sig.

.444

.200

.400

.051

.001**

.000**

.000** .952

.000** .039*

.001**

.000**

.000**

.000** .046*

.000**

.001**

.005**

.101

.072

.000**

.011**

.000**

.000**

.008**

.001**

Structural Equation Model To understand the influences on purchase intentions in a sponsorship and ambush marketing context fur-

ther. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed using LISREL 8.80. Prior to testing different patterns of relationships with SEM, the individual

48 Volume 21 • Number 1 • 2012 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

Table 3. Structural Equation Model, Path Co-efficient and Results

Path

Interest in Olympics Interest in Olympics Interest in Olympics Interest in Olympics Fairness Beliefs Distinguish Beliefs Ambush Evaluation

Fairness Beliefs Distinguish Beliefs Ambush Evaluation Purchase Intentions Ambush Evaluation Ambush Evaluation Purchase Intentions

Note: Overall model and fit indices were, p-value = .000, CFI *denotes a significant path

Path Coeff.

.19

.43

.53

.68 -.94 -.09 .24

= 0.94, GFI =.94,

t-values

2.50* 5.41* 3.05* 8.11* -9.84* -0.41 3.40*

NNFI = .92, RMSEA = .075

measurement models for each construct were evaluat- ed. Building on the exploratory factor analysis, one construct was modified so its representation in the model was reflective of attitudinal theory rather than being solely based on the empirical results of the exploratory technique. Notably, the Ambush Evaluation construct contained three items (i.e., Q25, Q35, Q37) that were more conative in nature than affective. Therefore, these items were taken out of the construct and tested in the Intention construct through an assessment of the Cronbach Alpha and the incremental deletion statistic. These items passed this test but were later dropped from the construct as part of the measurement model testing process. Indeed, several items for constructs were dropped from further analysis due to poor loadings (i.e., less than .70) for the items. The fit statistics improved on the measurement models for the constructs after these changes were undertaken. The resulting model represents a good fit with the data (see Table 3) and achieved better fit sta- tistics compared to competing models. For instance, an alternative model where the Interest in Olympics con- struct was modeled as linking solely through the belief constructs (i.e.. Fairness and Distinguish) resulted in weaker fit statistics indicating that the presented model offers a better representation of the data and remains consistent with the theory base. In addition, testing of discrete models for each grouping of high interest and low interest resulted in models that did not converge likely due to the small sample size for each group.

The subsequent re-examination of the pattern of relationships was based on the premise that behaviors are derived from evaluations and their preceding beliefs. Of the seven paths, six were significant, thereby illustrating the role of event interest in the purchase decision of sponsors when ambush attitudes are con- sidered. The model achieved reasonable fit statistics for absolute and incremental indices. For instance.

absolute fit statistics, such as the Goodness-of-Fit sta- tistic is above the 0.9 threshold and the root mean square error of approximation statistic is below the upper boundary of 0.1 indicating acceptable fit (Kline, 2005; Rigdon 1998). While absolute fit statistics pro- vide a measure of model assessment, it is also worth- while to examine those statistics that account for model complexity and sample size. From this perspec- tive, the incremental fit measures provide additional support for the model as a good fit for the data. Specifically, the non-normed fit index (NNFI) pro- vides an assessment of fit that accounts for model complexity and the model achieves an NNFI higher than the recommended 0.9 threshold (Hoyle & Panter, 1995). In addition, the comparative fit index (CFI) is less influenced by sample size and provides evidence of good model fit with a value in excess of the .90 thresh- old. While improved fit statistics could be achieved by presenting an even simpler model, the accepted model provides the broadest explanation of the ambushing phenomenon on purchase intentions based on the existing data and theoretical foundations.

The model demonstrates that the level of interest in the Olympic Games is a key determinant to ambush attitudes. The significant and positive paths between the level of interest in the Olympics and the belief con- structs (fairness and distinguish) show that interest can be influential at the cognitive phase of ambush atti- tudes. While the distinguish beliefs were not found to be related to ambush evaluations (path coeff = -.09; t = -0.41), fairness beliefs were found to be related nega- tively to ambush evaluations (path coeff. = -.94; t = - 9.84). Therefore, interest in the Olympic Games has both indirect and direct negative paths to ambush atti- tudes. The model presents evidence of direct and indi- rect positive paths to purchase intention. Results also reveal that respondents' interest in the Olympic Games is directly related to purchase intentions (path coeff =

Volume 21 • Number 1 • 2012 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 49

Figure 1. Sponsorship and Ambush Marketing Attitudes on Consumer Purchase Intentions

Note: Structural equation modeling was used to assess the relationship amongst the factors.

.68; t = 8.11) and indirectly through ambush evalua- tions (path coeff. = .24; t = 3.40).

Discussion This study contributes to the growing literature on Olympic sponsorship and to the extant literature in sport marketing regarding the role of consumer atti- tudes in behavior. The study provides support for previ- ous research indicating that official sponsorship is important to the purchase decision (Seguin et al., 2005; IOC, 2010; Stotlar, 1993). Further, the study demon- strated that the level of interest in the Olympic Games plays a salient role in the willingness to support official sponsors. These findings have considerable practical and research-based implications for mega-sports events.

While previous research examined attitudes of con- sumers on various issues related to the sponsorship of the Olympic Games (e.g.. Sandier & Shani, 1989; Seguin et al., 2005), the factors that may impact pur- chase intentions have not been examined in detail. In this study, the role of mega-sports event interest was found to significantly influence what consumers think and feel, and how they behave. Specifically, the level of interest in the Olympic Games helps explain differ- ences in respondent attitudes toward sponsorship and ambushing tactics. Although many of these differences are small, it is worth noting the low interest respon- dents thought that the Olympics were over-commer-

cialized and had excessive sponsorship to a greater degree than those within the high interest group. This seemingly benign result, suggests that the IOC may have made the right decision in the promotion of the clean venue policy; a strategy meant to thwart such perspectives. In future years, it is possible that such strategies may sway public opinion further and thus future and ongoing research is warranted in that regard. In practical terms, this suggests that organiza- tions considering sponsorship of the Olympic Games to achieve brand or awareness objectives would require additional investments in creative and subtle activation programs in the public domain (i.e., athletes, coaches, NSOs, others) over multiple communication platforms in order to promote their association to the Olympic Games and drive purchase intention outcomes.

Overall, the presented model demonstrates that the level of interest had a significant relationship with pur- chase intention. Indeed, the direct relationship between the level of interest in the Olympics and pur- chase intention is evidence that sponsorship of the Games can benefit both TOP and National partners. In addition, the model provides evidence of the indirect importance of event interest through fairness and ambush evaluation and hence, further demonstrates the important role of cognition influencing a person's affective state. Moreover, the model demonstrates that level of interest acts as a moderating factor through

50 Volume 21 • Number 1 • 2012 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

m^

ambush evaluation on purchase intention. Thus, level of interest influences a person's overall evaluation of ambush tactics and purchase intention to a significant degree which was shown to predict conation.

The results of this study bolster the assertion that consumers are more willing to support sponsors when they can clearly show that their involvement helps ath- letes attend the Games (cf., Seguin et al, 2005). Although both high and low interest groups felt they would be more willing to support sponsors knowing that athletes benefited in some way, there was a strong and significant difference in that the high interest group was much more in favor of this type of activity. Thus, the integration of athletes into marketing cam- paigns may be the most proficient way to appeal to consumers. This has important practical considera- tions given that both sponsors and non-sponsors are looking for ways to connect with athletes. It is suggest- ed that sponsors strategically integrate their Olympic sponsorship with other sponsorship programs aimed at supporting athletes. In the context of this research study, the program 'Own the Podium' (a CND $117- million initiative created specifically for the Canadian Olympic Team participating in the 2010 Winter Olympic Games), may have created a legitimate plat- form for sponsors to not only show their direct sup- port to athletes but also to a broader national strategy aimed at being the number one country in terms of medals won at the Olympic Games. The impact of such programs on consumers and purchase intention requires further study. Interestingly, integrating ath- letes into marketing campaigns seems to be an effective strategy for potential ambushers as well given the many opportunities to sponsor National Teams (through National Sport Organizations) and individual athletes. Given the results presented earlier, it becomes essential for Organizing Committees to develop pro- grams (sponsor recognition, PR) that will help the high interest consumers distinguish between the official sponsors and ambusher.

The results of this study provide a number of inter- esting recommendations for managers of mega-sports events. First, the relationship between interest and fair- ness suggests that event managers continue their public relations efforts in informing consumers about their affiliations and associations (i.e., activation and lever- age). High interest consumers perceived ambush more negatively than low interest consumers, and thus man- agers need to make people aware from a public rela- tions standpoint if ambush is a problem. Second, activation strategies appear critical given that the high interest consumer was more likely to purchase official sponsor products as others have also reported. Hence, as suggested above, the use of athletes in this regard

may strengthen sponsorship success. As well, purchase decisions may be more strongly linked to sponsorship than advertising connoting the importance of leverag- ing strategies.

Limitations and Future Research It is important to note that data was collected in only two provinces within Canada and thus, is likely not representative of the country as a whole. Further, data was collected during the most successful week of the Games for Canada based on medal count and thus, mood was high. Therefore, future research, should ide- ally look at a greater number of regions within a coun- try where differences in impact by city type (small, medium, large), by proximity to the Games location, and by other demographic factors could be further explored. Further, a broader consideration to the inter- est variable in Olympics can include consumer behav- ior responses to encapsulate engagement with the Games (e.g., TV viewing, Internet searching etc.), both during the Games and in a period when Games are not taking place. There is a need to build on this explo- ration of interest to develop the construct further to help explain why interest has a strong direct relation- ship with intentions, perhaps broadening the construct to involvement (e.g., Zaichkowsky, 1985). Similarly, level of interest may be influenced by temporal factors since data collection occurred during the Vancouver Games which limits findings. Consequently, a pre- games, during-games, post-games research program can help shed greater light on consumer conation and hence sponsorship success. Further, an assessment of activation strategies is warranted and their influence on purchase intention. It is our hope that this study, will help in the growing interest to understand con- sumer behavior within a mega-sports event setting.

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