Philly 2-Val
Week 5, Reading Section 5.1: Introduction
I. Introduction
During this week, you will study the School of Moral Philosophy, known as Deontology. It was created by the German Philosopher, Immanuel Kant, in the Late-Eighteenth Century, during the later period of the Enlightenment. Later Philosophers, such as W.D. Ross, John Rawls, and Martha Nussbaum, among others, have added to Deontology.
Kant believed that people were Reasoning Moral Agents, who had ethical duties and responsibilities. As you will see, below, Deontology posits that people have a Duty to do The Right Thing. They also have duties to treat their fellow human beings as Ends, not means. That translates into not treating our fellows, as objects we can manipulate and use. Human beings have an innate dignity, which no other human being may take away. . .
As you will see, below, Kant’s system had the following elements. First, what he called the Categorical Imperative was a systematic way to determine what the Right Thing to Do is, based on Reason, not Emotions or Feelings. Second, all human beings have a Duty to do the Right Thing, consciously , and not by habit, once they have used the Categorical Imperative to determine the correct course of action. Third, that Duty to do the Right Thing is an Absolute requirement. There can be no exceptions, once one knows the correct ethic in a situation.
Resource: Kant's Moral Philosophy
Week 5, Reading Section 5.2: Immanuel, Kant, and Deontology
II. Immanuel Kant and Deontology
Immanuel Kant is one of the greats of Philosophy. He contributed numerous concepts, ideas, and systems to the subject. He was a Metaphysician, an Epistemologist, a Moral Philosopher, and a Social Philosopher, among his various interests. We owe much to his work.
In Moral Philosophy, Kant reacted against Hume’s ideas. Kant believed that Ethics and Morality should be based on Reason, not on Emotions, not even the Emotion of Compassion. He also believed that Reason could provide us with the answers to the problems of the Right Thing to Do. He also rejected the idea that results, alone, could make an action moral or ethical. He ruled out habit, or accident, too. In the rejection of unthinking or rote Habit, he disagreed with Aristotle.
A. The Categorical Imperative
In arguing that Reason must govern Moral/Ethical systems, Kant was following the traditions of the Greeks (Plato and Aristotle), and Thomas Aquinas, among others. His views were based on secular, rather than strictly religious, considerations. In that regard, he believed that people should not follow the Divine Command Theory, or any other unreasoned approach.
He formulated the Categorical Imperative, as a methodology and process, for applying Reason to Moral and Ethical problems and arriving at the correct Norm/rule. Kant did not base his thinking on outcomes or results. An accidentally good result could not turn an otherwise unethical action into an ethical one.
The way in which the Categorical Imperative works is: the person must (1) look at the situation, (2) identify possible Norms, and (3) choose the one rule/Norm , which, if the applied would be a Universal Norm, and would govern all people, including the person making the decision. ‘Act as though you would will that Norm to be a Universal,’ said Kant.
B. Requirements for Ethical Action
Kant’s basic principles were the following. First, the Categorical Imperative, above, was the method by which people could reason ethical/moral action in a situation. He argued that, in determining what we should do, we should “will that the rule be a universal norm,’ applying to all people equally. There could be no exceptions.
For example, Kant believed that lying was in all circumstances morally wrong. We have an Absolute Duty to tell the truth. When we apply the Categorical Imperative to the question of lying, we see: (1) that lying undermines the trust, which a society needs, in order to function in healthy and productive ways for all its members and (2) that we would not want to be lied to. Thus, we would will the norm of truth-telling as a Universal and Absolute Norm.
Second, once we have identified the Norm/Rule to follow, we must follow it EVERY time, with no exceptions. Kant was, therefore, an Absolutist Ethicist. Later Philosophers and commentators have faulted him, for his Absolutism, since there are instances of competing Norms, when picking one, absolutely, can harm someone.
Third, we had to be aware (conscious) of the Duty to do the Right Thing. Kant rejected unthinking, habitual behavior as a source of moral actions. In that regard, he rejected part of Aristotle’s Moral Theory. Aristotle held that good actions resulted from people learning Habitual behavior and then acting on it. The Habits were based on the Virtues of Knowledge/Wisdom, Courage, Temperance, Compassion, and Justice.
While Kant believed that the substance of the Virtues were good and could be justified by the use of the Categorical Imperative, he disagreed that habitual doing of the virtues, without being conscious or the duty to do so produced ethical actions. It is the conscious recognition and adherence to the Absolute Duty to do the Right Thing that produces Right actions.,
Fourth, the Duty was Absolute. We always act upon the Duty, with no exceptions. Being lazy or cutting corners is not allowed, according to Kant.
Resource: Moral Rules: Kant's Deontological Ethics [PDF]
C. Treatment of Our Fellow Human Beings
In all of this, we must treat our fellow human beings with dignity and respect, and must treat them as Ends-in-themselves, never as means. Since our fellows are independent and Responsible, Moral Agents, they are our equals. And Equality is a system that is discoverable, using the Categorical Imperative.
We must never use a fellow human being, as a means. Manipulation, exploitation, oppression, and objectification are morally wrong, in all circumstances, according to Kant. Using someone, to get something for oneself is never a moral action, even if that person nominally consents to being used.
Week 5, Reading Section 5.3: Nursing Homes and Care of the Aged/Elderly
III. Nursing Homes and Care of the Aged/Elderly.
Although the Earth’s population has been increasing, considerable segments, especially in the Developed World, are aging. While the populations of the Developing World, what we used to call the Third and Fourth Worlds, have increased and continue to do so, the populations of the Developed Nations have slowed in increase, have plateaued, or are decreasing, Japan being an example of the last instance.
In the United States, the so-called Baby Boomers have entered their 50s, 60s, and 70s. Though caring for older/aged/senior people is always an important concern in our society, today the numbers of seniors are higher than ever before. No doubt, you have encountered this issue in your own family, with aged parents and extended family members. As an introductory matter, please see the following article, regarding issues within the current Aged Care system:
Global Aging and the Allocation of Health Care Across the Life Span. . Daniels, Norman; American Journal of Bioethics, Aug2013; 13(8): 1-2. 2p. ISSN: 1526-5161 PMID: 23862589, Database: CINAHL Complete.]
Everyday ethics in the care of elderly people , Ingrid Ågren; Sandman, Lars; Andersson, Edith; Nursing Ethics, Vol 13(3), May, 2006 pp. 249-263. Publisher: Sage Publications; [Journal Article], Database: PsycINFO]
In the U.S., there is no centralized policy or set of policies on Care of the Aged. There is a patchwork of approaches, from private family care, to private nursing homes, and to Medicare nursing home coverage. Should there be a unified approach? Should it be voluntary or mandatory? What of the rights of the families to determine the care of their older loved ones and of the rights of the aged? These are a few of the relevant issues. Remember: there are no “right” or “wrong” answers, here. . .
Here are articles on related issues:
Resource: Disability and Health Care Rationing
Resource: Justice and Access to Health Care
[Please note: In Week 6, you will learn about issues of World Health and of Allocation of Health Care.]
In the Discussion to follow, you will address issues in this area of Care of the Aged.