Weekly Reflection
Political�Ecology Part�5:�Land�and�Environment
Land�Issues�Stem�From…
� Extreme�inequalities�in�land�ownership�in� most�Latin�American�countries � Most�land�is�held�by�a�tiny�minority�of�wealthy� landowners�– the�vast�majority�is�left�with�either� insufficient�holdings�or�no�land�at�all � The�fact�continues�to�be�a�major�source�of� political�conflict�and�instability
� The�origins�of�inequality�begin�in�the�colonial� period
Forms�of�Land�Holdings�from�the�Colonial�Period
� Plantations – tended�to�be� located�in�areas�where�the� indigenous�population�was� less�advanced�(and�were� soon�eliminated) � These�were�exportͲ oriented,�for�profit� business�– efficiently�run� operations
Forms�of�Land�Holdings�from�the�Colonial�Period
� Haciendas – tended�to�be� located�in�areas�with� indigenous�populations� that�were�subject�to�the� owners � Production�was�primarily�for� domestic�markets�– they� were�symbols�of�prestige� (power�and�status)�rather� than�a�“business”�like� plantations�– aristocrat� culture�with�feudal� relationship�to�peasants
Forms�of�Land�Holdings�from�the�Colonial�Period
� Smallholder communities – tended�to�be�located�in� inaccessible�or�undesirable� locations � Residual�indigenous� communities
� Retained�preͲColombian� practices � EX.�communal�land�
� Numbers�increased�with�poor� mestizo�peasants
Capitalist�Agriculture
� Plantation�model�grew�at�expense�of�the�hacienda� model�(and�smallholders)�as�foreign�interest� developed�post�independence�(late�19th�century)�– most�unequal�continent�in�the�world�at�the�time � US�companies�became�major�landowners,�turning� plantations�into�modern�capitalist�farms�– exporting� wealth�outside�the�region
� Landowners�with�large�holdings�(local�and�foreign)� became�richer�and�more�politically�influential,� acquiring�more�and�more�land
Peasant�Agriculture
� Population�growth�lead�to�increasingly� insufficient�land�holdings�as�plots�are�further� subdivided�as�families�expand� � Many�are�forced�to�seek�work�on�plantations� because�the�limited�land�cannot�support�families� year�round � 70%�of�rural�population�in�Central�America�are�seasonal� migrants
� Many�end�up�migrating�to�the�slums�in�cities�
Poverty�and�Extreme�Poverty�in�Rural� Areas,�1980Ͳ1999
Modern�Agriculture
� Development�schemes�with�government�investment�– typically�put�into�large�scale�export�agriculture�(favors� plantations�over�the�majority�smallholders) � Colombia�– 50Ͳfold�increase�1950Ͳ72;�Mexico�– irrigated�its�arid�northwest
� Alliance�for�Progress�(1961)�– US�support�of�Latin� American�land�reform�after�Cuban�Revolution�(wanted� to�quell�discontent) � However,�this�development�scheme�typically�had�incompatible� goals… � Redistribute�land�and�wealth�to�rural�poor�so�they�don’t�go�the�way�of� Cuba
� Increase�productivity�and�modernization�of�agricultural�sector�(which� typically�means�consolidating�land�in�large�scale�farms)
Modern�Agriculture
� Today,�agricultural�MNCs�have�drawn�back�from� direct�control�of�land,�preferring�instead�to� contract�out�to�local�farmers � Local�farmers�take�the�risks�(like�crop�failure)� and�deal�with�labor�issues
� Power�is�still�in�the�hands�of�largeͲscale� agriculture,�which�has�a�monopoly�on�land,� capital,�credit,�state�support,�and�access�to�global� markets
Competition�for�Land � Commercial�agriculture�– spread�into�peasant�farms�forcing�
smallholders�out � Through:�money,�legal�trickery�(deeds),�brute�force�(armed� thugs)
� Peasants�– seized�idle�lands,�organizing�political�movements�to� demand�agricultural�reform � EX. Movimento�dos�Trabalhadores�Rurais�Sem�Terra (MST)�in� Brazil � Largest�social�movement�in�Latin�America�(1.5M) � 3%�of�landowners�control�2/3�of�arable�land
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Competition�for�Land � Plantations�– most�disputes�are�over�labor�issues�such�as�
wages�and�working�conditions � Government�response�to�demands�for�land�(and�to�reduce�
urban�tensions)�have�been�Colonization�Programs � Governments�use�colonization�of�the�frontier�as�an� alternative�to�land�reform
� But�the�land�is�often�unsuitable�for�agriculture�and/or�it�is� located�in�remote�areas�that�would�necessitate�outrageous� transportation�costs
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EX:�Mexico’s�Land�Reform � Came�out�of�Mexican�revolution�(1910Ͳ1917�)�– Article�27�of�the�
Constitution � Major�land�reform�efforts�under�Lazaro�Cardenas�(1934Ͳ1940)�–
helped�to�solidify�PRI�clientilism � Broke�up�haciendas,�gave�1.5M�families�land � Ejido system�is�practiced�in�many�indigenous�communities:�communallyͲ
owned�land�administered�by�Indian�communities�along�traditional�lines� � Although�land�was�redistributed,�there�was�a�failure�to�reform�the�necessary�
credit/investment�– overall,�done�little�to�improve�living�standards � Constitutional�reform�in�1990’s�allowed�piecemeal�privatization�of�
ejido lands � A�reason�for�the�Zapatista�uprising�in�1994
� Neoliberal�restructuring�has�put�past�gains�in�reverse�across�the� region
Environmental�Issues
� Land�viewed�as�a�resource�base�for�exploitation� with�no�sense�of�stewardship�(a�European�model)� since�colonization�
� Major�environmental�issues�in�the�region… � deforestation� � soil�erosion� � agricultural�pollution� � industrial�pollution� � poverty’s�affect�on�the�environment
Issue:�Deforestation � 62%�of�world’s�remaining�tropical�rainforest�are�located�in�
Latin�America�– 12%�had�been�destroyed�by�midͲ90’s � Why�are�forests�destroyed? � Pastures�for�cattle;�large�scale�agriculture � Colonization�programs�by�governments
� By�peasants�for�agriculture � Development�projects�– dams�and�industries � Logging
� What�are�the�costs�of�deforestation? � Erosion�of�topsoil � Disruption�of�the�local�climate � Forest�resources�for�the�poor�lost � Loss�of�way�of�life�for�indigenous � Loss�of�biological�diversity/genetic�materials � Loss�of�commercial�potential � Loss�of�“carbon�trading”�potential
Amazon�Deforestation
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Issue:�Agricultural�Pollution
� Soil�Erosion � Agriculture�contributes�to�soil�erosion�in�a�number�of�ways�
� Land�distribution�is�a�factor�– peasants�are�often�located�on�marginal�lands� (like�hillsides)�– not�practicing�sustainable�methods
� Mechanized�agriculture�can�also�be�inefficient�in�maintaining�soil�integrity
� Chemical�Inputs � Pesticide�companies�often�claim�philanthropic�pursuits � Chemicals�are�typically�only�used�on�export�crops�(too�expensive�for�
peasant�farmers)�– but�the�health�effects�are�felt�locally � Spraying�chemicals�puts�them�into�the�air,�and�workers�are�often�not�given� adequate�safety�instructions�or�safety�gear
� Irresponsible�management�– not�ensuring�proper�use � Pesticide�treadmill�– more�and�more�is�needed�as�pest�become�resistant � Protective�legislation/regulation�is�often�ignored
Chemical�Company’s�Materials�for�Workers
Philanthropic�Pursuits�of�AgroͲChemical� Industry?
� Monsanto people around the world are taking action, within their business teams and through their individual volunteer efforts. They work to develop systems that reward innovation in underserved markets, make our products and research safe, help their communities through volunteer efforts and charitable giving, and contribute to collaborative work environments.
� Helping�families�to�improve�food�production�and�nutrition,�including�research� on�reducing�the�impact�of�pests�on�subsistence�crops�
� Science�education,�with�grants�being�given�to�communities�near�Monsanto� facilities�for�programs�that�support�greater�science�literacy�
� Work�that�benefits�the�environment,�including�programs�that�promote� environmental�education�and�awareness,�improve�water�quality,�improve� wildlife�habitat,�and�encourage�conservation�
� Community�efforts,�including�arts�and�cultural�events,�local�school�projects,� human�needs�programs,�and�community�services�projects�
Issue:�Development�and�Industrial�Pollution
� Predilection�for�“big”�development�projects � Massive�dams�equal�hydroelectric�power�– industries�typically�spring�up�around�them � Problems:��debt,�displacement,� environmental/habitat�destruction�(reservoir),� climate/geologic�change,�loss�of�arable�land,� parasitic�disease�(from�standing�water),�siltation � Pressure�on�international�agencies�have�changed� policy�(less�megaͲdams�being�built);�but�countries� still�paying�off�debt�from�these�projects
Itaipu�Dam�&�Reservoir�:�Brazil/Paraguay
Issue:�Development�and�Industrial�Pollution
� Extractive�industries�– mining�and�oil� � Environmental�damage�integral,�unavoidable;�also� accidents � Other�industries�spring�up�around�them�as�well
� Small�producers�also�a�problem�– gold�prospectors�on� indigenous�lands�in�Amazon�use�mercury�which� contaminates�water�and�land
Oil�Spill�in�Ecuadorian�River
Expansion�of�Shrimp�Farms�in�Honduras
Effects�of�Shrimp�Farms
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Issue:�Restructuring�and�Population
� SAPs�– push�for�exportͲled�growth�(raw�material� production) � NTAE�(nonͲtraditional�agricultural�exports):��require� more�chemical�inputs�than�traditional/nonͲexport� products�(EX:�shrimp�farms)
� Maquiladoras:��well�known�industrial�polluters � Population�Issues�– urban�areas � Smog�in�urban�areas�– industry,�automobiles�(75%),�etc. � ISI�– unchecked�industrialization�and�agricultural�policies� which�forced�increased�urbanization
� Booming�population�growth�since�1950s*
Air�Quality�in�Mexico�City