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441

Visually Speaking

Today, conducting research is both easy and difficult. It’s easy because research technology is powerful and many research methods are available. It’s difficult because that technology and those methods provide access to so much information—the good, the bad, and the ugly.

How do you meet this challenge and conduct quality research? First, consider whether your project would benefit from primary research. When you engage in primary research, you gather information firsthand by observing sites, interviewing people, and analyzing documents. Second, learn how to use an expert resource—your college library. The library is your gateway to quality print and electronic materials.

Review the photograph above. What does this image suggest to you about library research? How does it relate to your own experiences of libraries?

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand primary and secondary sources.

▶ Plan and conduct primary research.

▶ Use the college library, research tools, and resources.

▶ Locate and work with quality reference works.

▶ Locate and work with quality print books.

▶ Locate and work with quality periodical articles.

Conducting Primary and Library Research

Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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■ Primary and Secondary Sources Information sources for your research project can be either primary or secondary. Depending on your assignment, you may be expected to use one or both kinds of sources.

Consider primary sources. A primary source is an original source, one that gives firsthand information on a topic. This source (such as a diary, a person, or an event) informs you directly about the topic, rather than through another person’s explanation or interpretation. The most common forms of primary research are observations, interviews, surveys, experiments, and analyses of original documents and artifacts.

Consider secondary sources. Secondary sources present secondhand information on your topic—information at least once removed from the original. This information has been compiled, summarized, analyzed, synthesized, interpreted, or evaluated by someone studying primary sources. Journal articles, encyclopedia entries, documentaries, and nonfiction books are typical examples of such secondary sources.

Example: Below are possible primary and secondary sources for a research project exploring hybrid car technology and its viability. Note: Whether a source is primary or secondary depends on what you are studying. For example, if you were studying U.S. attitudes toward hybrid cars (and not hybrid car technology itself), the newspaper editorial and TV roundtable would be primary sources.

INSIGHT: Some resources are tertiary—that is, thirdhand. They are essentially reports of reports of research and, therefore, are distant from the original information. Examples of tertiary sources would include some articles in popular magazines and entries in Wikipedia. Aside from giving you ideas for focusing your topic, tertiary sources should generally not be used in college research projects and should not appear in works-cited or references lists.

Primary Sources

E-mail interview with automotive engineer

Fuel-efficiency legislation

Visit and test-drive a car at a dealership

Published statistics about hybrid car sales

Secondary Sources

Journal article discussing the development of hybrid car technology

Newspaper editorial on fossil fuels

TV news roundtable discussion of hybrid car advantages and disadvantages

Promotional literature for a specific hybrid car

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Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

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Conduct primary research. You need to choose the method of primary research that best suits your project. For help, review the following descriptions:

■ Conducting Primary Research When published sources can’t give you the information that you need, consider conducting primary research. However, you must first weigh all its advantages and disadvantages.

Upside of Primary Research ■ It produces information precisely tailored to your research needs. ■ It gives you direct, hands-on access to your topic.

Downside of Primary Research ■ It can take a lot of time and many resources to complete. ■ It can require special skills, such as designing surveys and analyzing statistics

and original documents.

1. Surveys and questionnaires gather written responses you can review, tabulate, and analyze. These research tools pull together varied information— from simple facts to personal opinions and attitudes. See “Conduct surveys” on pages 444–445.

2. Interviews involve consulting two types of people. First, you can interview experts for their insights on your topic. Second, you can interview people whose direct experiences with the topic give you their personal insights. See “Conduct interviews,” page 448, and “Interview Report,” pages 325–332.

3. Observations, inspections, and field research require you to examine and analyze people, places, events, and so on. Whether you rely simply on your five senses or use scientific techniques, observing provides insights into the present state of your subject. For help with observation, field research, and writing reports based on this work, go to www.thecollegewriter.com/4e.

4. Experiments test hypotheses—predictions about why things do what they do—to arrive at conclusions that can be accepted and acted upon. Such testing often explores cause/effect relationships. See “Lab, Experiment, and Field Reports” on pages 333–346.

5. Analysis of documents and artifacts involves studying original reports, statistics, legislation, literature, artwork, and historical records. Such analysis provides unique, close-up interpretations of your topic. See “Analyze texts, documents, records, and artifacts” on pages 446–447, as well as “Writing About Literature and the Arts” on pages 349–364.

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Conduct surveys. One source of primary information that you can use for research projects is a survey or questionnaire. Surveys can collect facts and opinions from a wide range of people about virtually any topic. To get valid information, follow these guidelines:

1. Find a focus. ■ Limit the purpose of your survey. ■ Target a specific audience.

2. Ask clear questions. ■ Phrase questions so they can be easily understood. ■ Use words that are objective (not biased or slanted).

3. Match your questions to your purpose. ■ Closed questions give respondents easy-answer options, and the answers are

easy to tabulate. Closed questions can provide two choices (yes or no, true or false), multiple choices, a rating scale (poor 1 2 3 excellent), or a blank to fill.

■ Open-ended questions bring in a wide variety of responses and more complex information, but they take time to complete, and the answers can be difficult to summarize.

4. Organize your survey so that it’s easy to complete. ■ In the introduction, state who you are and why you need the information.

Explain how to complete the survey and when and where to return it. ■ Guide readers by providing numbers, instructions, and headings. ■ Begin with basic questions and end with any complex, open-ended questions

that are necessary. Move in a logical order from one topic to the next.

5. Test your survey before using it. ■ Ask a friend or classmate to read your survey and help you revise it, if

necessary, before printing it. ■ Try out your survey with a small test group.

6. Conduct your survey. ■ Distribute the survey to a clearly defined group that won’t prejudice the

sampling (random or cross section). ■ Get responses from a good sample of your target group (10 percent if at

all possible). ■ Tabulate responses carefully and objectively.

Note: To develop statistically valid results, you may need expert help. Check with your instructor.

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Sample Survey

Confidential Survey

My name is Cho Lang, and I’m conducting research about the use of training

supplements. I’d like to hear from you, Alfred University’s athletes. Please answer

the questions below by circling or writing out your responses. Return your survey

to me, care of the Dept. of Psychology, through campus mail by Friday, April 5.

Your responses will remain confidential.

1. Circle your gender. Male Female

2. Circle your year.

Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior

3. List the sports that you play.

4. Are you presently using a training supplement?

Yes No

Note: If you circled “no,” you may turn in your survey at this point.

5. Describe your supplement use (type, amount, and frequency).

6. Who supervises your use of this training supplement?

Coach Trainer Self Others

7. How long have you used it?

Less than 1 month 1–12 months 12+ months

8. How many pounds have you gained while using this supplement?

9. How much has your athletic performance improved?

None 1 2 3 4 5 Greatly

10. Circle any side effects you’ve experienced.

Dehydration Nausea Diarrhea

445Chapter 28 Conducting Primary and Library Research

The introduction includes the essential information about the survey.

The survey begins with clear, basic questions.

The survey asks an open-ended question.

The survey covers the topic thoroughly.

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Analyze texts, documents, records, and artifacts. An original document or record is one that relates directly to the event, issue, object, or phenomenon you are researching. Examining original documents and artifacts can involve studying letters, e-mail exchanges, case notes, literary texts, sales records, legislation, and material objects such as tools, sculptures, buildings, and tombs. As you analyze such documents and records, you examine evidence in an effort to understand a topic, arrive at a coherent conclusion about it, and support that judgment. How do you work with such diverse documents, records, and artifacts? Here are some guidelines:

Choose evidence close to your topic. Which texts, documents, records, and artifacts originated from or grew out of the topic you are researching? The closer to the topic, the more primary the source. Select materials that are directly related to your research questions and/or working thesis.

Example: If you were studying English labor riots of the 1830s, you could investigate these primary sources:

■ To understand what rioters were demanding, copies of speeches given at demonstrations

■ To know who the rioters were, names from police reports or union membership lists

■ To learn the political response to the riots, political speeches or legislation

■ To get at the attitudes of people from that time, newspaper reports, works of art, or novels from the period

■ To find people’s personal stories and private opinions related to the riots, personal letters, diaries, family albums, gravestones, and funeral eulogies

Example: To study the legislative background behind the development of cleaner cars, such as the hybrid-fuel vehicle, you could access various documents on the Clean Air Act of 1990 (for example, The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act, an EPA publication). As you study this legislation, you could frame your reading with these additional questions:

■ What are the requirements of the Clean Air Act? ■ Specifically, how do those requirements affect automotive technology? ■ Which private and public research projects will likely inf luence these

requirements? ■ Are schedules for change or deadlines written into the Clean Air Act?

Frame your examination with questions. To make sense of the text, document, record, or artifact, understand what you are looking for and why. List the secondary questions that you want to answer in relation to the main question behind your research project.

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Example: If you were examining Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in a history or women’s studies course, you would consider the following:

■ External Context: who Mary Wollstonecraft was; when and why she wrote A Vindication and under what conditions; for whom she wrote it and their response; the type of document it is

■ Internal Context: Wollstonecraft’s essential argument and evidence; the nature of her views, their relationship to her times, and their relevance today

Example: A study of the Clean Air Act might lead you to a variety of conclusions regarding how environmental legislation relates to the development of hybrid technology—for example, that the United States must produce cleaner cars if it hopes to gain improved air quality.

■ Political science: What role did political theories, structures, and processes play in the riots—both in causing and in responding to them?

■ Art: How were the concerns of the rioters embodied in the new “realist” style of the mid-1800s? Did artists sympathize with and address an alienated working- class audience? How did art comment on the social structures of the time?

■ Sociology: What type and quality of education did most workers have in the 1830s? How did that education affect their economic status and employment opportunities? Did issues related to the riots prompt changes in the English educational system? What changes and why?

Put the document or artifact in context. So that the material takes on meaning, clarify its external and internal natures. First, consider its external context—the five W’s and H: What exactly is it? Who made it, when, where, why, and how? Second, consider its internal nature—what the document means, based on what it can and cannot show you: What does the language mean or refer to? What is the document’s structure? What are the artifact’s composition and style?

Draw coherent conclusions about meaning. Make sense of the source in relation to your research questions. What connections does the source reveal? What important changes or developments? What cause/effect relationships? What themes?

InSIght: Studying primary documents and artifacts is central to many disciplines— history, literature, theology, philosophy, political studies, and archaeology, for example. Good analysis depends on asking research questions appropriate for the discipline. With the English labor riots of the 1830s again as an example, here’s what three disciplines might ask:

With these examples in mind, consider your own major: What questions would this discipline ask of the English labor riots, of Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, or of the Clean Air Act of 1990?

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Conduct interviews. The purpose of an interview is simple: To get information, you talk with someone who has significant experience or someone who is an expert on your topic. Use the guidelines below whenever you conduct an interview. (See also pages 325–332.)

1. Before the interview, do your homework about the topic and the person you are planning to interview. ■ Arrange the interview in a thoughtful way. Explain to the interviewee your purpose

and the topics to be covered. ■ Think about the specific ideas you want to cover in the interview and write

questions for each. Addressing the 5 W’s and H (Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How?) is important for good coverage.

■ Organize your questions in a logical order so the interview moves smoothly from one subject to the next.

■ Write the questions on the left side of a page. Leave room for quotations, information, and impressions on the right side.

2. During the interview, try to relax so that your conversation is natural and sincere. ■ Provide some background information about yourself,

your project, and your plans for using the interview information.

■ Use recording equipment only with the interviewee’s permission.

■ Jot down key facts and quotations. ■ Listen actively. Show that you’re listening through

your body language—eye contact, nods, smiles. Pay attention not only to what the person says, but also to how he or she says it.

■ Be f lexible. If the person looks puzzled by a question, rephrase it. If the discussion gets off track, redirect it. Based on the interviewee’s responses, ask follow-up questions, and don’t limit yourself to your planned questions only.

3. After the interview, do the appropriate follow-up work. ■ As soon as possible, review your notes. Fill in responses you remember but couldn’t

record at the time. ■ Thank the interviewee with a note, an e-mail, or a phone call. ■ If necessary, ask the interviewee to check whether your information and quotations

are accurate. ■ Offer to send the interviewee a copy of your writing.

448 Research and Writing

Based on the interviewee’s responses, ask follow-up questions, and don’t limit yourself to your planned questions only.

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■ Using the Library The library door is your gateway to information. Inside, the college library holds a wide range of research resources, from books to periodicals, from reference librarians to electronic databases.

Become familiar with the library. To improve your ability to succeed at all your research assignments, become familiar with your college library system. Take advantage of tours and orientation sessions to learn its physical layout, resources, and services. Check your library’s website for policies, tutorials, and research tools. The college library offers a variety of resources for your research projects.

Librarians: Librarians are information experts: ■ Librarians manage the library’s materials and guide you to resources. ■ They help you perform online searches.

Collections: The library collects and houses a variety of materials: ■ Books and electronic materials—CD-ROMs, CDs, and DVDs ■ Periodicals—journals, magazines, and newspapers (print or microform) ■ Reference materials—directories, indexes, handbooks, encyclopedias, and

almanacs ■ Special collections—government publications, historical documents, and

original artifacts

Research tools: The library contains many tools that direct you to materials: ■ The online catalog allows you to search everything in the library. ■ Print indexes and subscription databases (Lexis-Nexis, EBSCOhost, ProQuest

Direct) point you to abstracts and full-text articles. ■ Internet access connects you with other library catalogs and online references.

Special services: Special services may also help you to complete research: ■ Interlibrary loan allows you to obtain books and articles not available in your

library. ■ “Hold” allows you to request a book that is currently signed out. ■ “Reserve” materials give you access to materials recommended by your

instructors or heavily in demand. ■ The reference desk can help you find information quickly, point you to the right

resources, and help you with a search. ■ Photocopiers, CD burners, scanners, and presentation software help you

perform and share your research.

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Search the catalog. Library materials are catalogued so they are easy to find. In most college libraries, books, videos, and other holdings are catalogued in an electronic database. To find material, use book titles, author names, and related keyword searching. (See also pages 424–425.)

Keyword Browse Exact

1. Enter the word(s) you want to find. Keyword returns records containing the word(s) entered. Browse returns catalog headings beginning with the first word

entered. exact returns records that exactly match the word(s) entered. 2. Choose a target search field. Search everything targets all indexed fields within a record. All other choices target specified fields within a record.

Search Everything Author Title Subject Series

Periodical Title

When you find a citation for a book or other resource, the result will provide some or all of the following information. Use that information to determine whether the resource is worth exploring further and to figure out other avenues of research. Note that a number of items appearing in blue, underlined type provide links to related books and other resources in the catalog.

Cudworth, Erika, 1966–

Title: Environment and Society

Publisher: London; New York: Routledge, 2003.

Physical descript.: xii, 232 p.: ill.; 24 cm.

Subjects: Human ecology [65 rec.] Nature—Effect of human being on [15 rec.] Environmental protection [25 rec.]

Call number: GF 41 .C83 2003

Location: Available—on shelf

Author or editor’s name

Title and subtitle

Publisher and copyright date

Descriptive information

Subject headings (crucial list of topics)

Call number

Location

Sample Electronic Catalog

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Locating Resources by Call Numbers Library of Congress (LC) call numbers combine letters and numbers to specify a resource’s broad subject area, topic, and authorship or title. Finding a book, DVD, or other item involves combining both the alphabetical and the numerical order. Here is a sample call number for Arctic Refuge: A Vanishing Wilderness?:

VIdeo Qh84.1.a72 1990 subject area (Qh) topic number (84) subtopic number (1) cutter number (a72)

To find this resource in the library, first note the tab VIDEO. Although not part of the call number, this locator may send you to a specific area of the library. Once there, follow the parts of the call number one at a time:

1. Find the library section on natural history containing videos with the “QH” designation.

2. Follow the numbers until you reach “84.” 3. Within the “84” items, find those with the subtopic “1.” 4. Use the cutter “A72” to locate the resource alphabetically with “A,” and

numerically with “72.”

Note: In the LC system, pay careful attention to the arrangement of subject area letters, topic numbers, and subtopic numbers: Q98 comes before QH84; QH84 before QH8245; QH84.A72 before QH84.1.A72.

Classification Systems The LC classification system combines letters and numbers. The Dewey decimal system, which is used in some libraries, uses numbers only. Here is a list of the subject classes for both the LC and Dewey systems.

The Library of Congress and Dewey Decimal Systems

LC Category Dewey Decimal A General Works 000–999 B Philosophy 100–199 Psychology 150–159 Religion 200–299 C History: Auxiliary Sciences 910–929 D History: General and

Old World 930–999 E–F History: American 970–979 G Geography 910–919 Anthropology 571–573 Recreation 700–799 H Social Sciences 300–399 J Political Science 320–329

LC Category Dewey Decimal K Law 340–349 L Education 370–379 M Music 780–789 N Fine Arts 700–799 P Language 800–899 Literature 400–499 Q Science 500–599 R Medicine 610–619 S Agriculture 630–639 T Technology 600–699 U Military Science 355–359, 623 V Naval Science 359, 623 Z Bibliography and 010–0199 Library Science 020–029

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■ Using Books in Research Your college library contains a whole range of books for you to use, from scholarly studies and reference works to trade books and biographies. Unfortunately, for most research projects you simply don’t have time to read an entire book, and rarely do the entire contents relate to your topic. Instead, use the strategy outlined below to refine your research effort.

Approach the book systematically. 1. Check out front and back information.

The title and copyright pages give the book’s full title and subtitle; the author’s name; and publication information, including publication date and Library of Congress subject headings. The back may contain a note on the author’s credentials and other publications.

2. Scan the table of contents. Examine the contents page to see what the book covers and how it is organized. Ask yourself which chapters are relevant to your project.

3. Using key words, search the index. Check the index for coverage and page locations of the topics most closely related to your project. Are there plenty of pages, or just a few? Are these pages concentrated or scattered throughout the book?

4. Skim the preface, foreword, or introduction. Skimming the opening materials will often indicate the book’s perspective, explain its origin, and preview its contents.

5. Check appendices, glossaries, or bibliographies. These special sections may be a good source of tables, graphics, definitions, statistics, and clues for further research.

6. Carefully read appropriate chapters and sections. Think through the material you’ve read and take good notes. (See pages 432–435.) Follow references to authors and other works to do further research on the topic. Study footnotes and endnotes for insights and leads.

Consider these options for working productively with books: ■ When you find a helpful book, browse nearby shelves for more books. ■ To confirm a book’s quality, check the Internet, a periodical database, or

Book Review Digest for a review. ■ If your library subscribes to an e-book service such as NetLibrary, you have

access to thousands of books in electronic form. You can conduct electronic searches, browse or check out promising books, and read them online.

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Check reference works that supply information.

Check reference works that are research tools.

Encyclopedias supply facts and overviews for topics arranged alphabetically. ■ General encyclopedias cover many fields of knowledge: Encyclopedia Britannica,

Collier’s Encyclopedia. ■ Specialized encyclopedias focus on a single topic: McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of

Science and Technology, Encyclopedia of American Film Comedy.

Almanacs, yearbooks, and statistical resources, normally published annually, contain diverse facts.

■ The World Almanac and Book of Facts presents information on politics, history, religion, business, social programs, education, and sports.

■ Statistical Abstract of the United States provides data on population, geography, politics, employment, business, science, and industry.

Vocabulary resources supply information on languages. ■ General dictionaries, such as The American Heritage College Dictionary, supply

definitions and histories for a whole range of words. ■ Specialized dictionaries define words common to a field, topic, or group:

Dictionary of Engineering, The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. ■ Bilingual dictionaries translate words from one language to another.

Biographical resources supply information about people. General biographies cover a broad range of people. Other biographies focus on people from a specific group. Examples: Who’s Who in America, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, World Artists 1980–1990.

Directories supply contact information for people, groups, and organizations. Examples: The National Directory of Addresses and Telephone Numbers, USPS ZIP Code Lookup and Address Information (online), Official Congressional Directory.

Guides and handbooks help readers explore specific topics: The Handbook of North American Indians, A Guide to Prairie Fauna.

Indexes point you to useful resources. Some indexes are general, such as Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature; others are specific, such as Environment Index or Business Periodicals Index. (Many are now available online in databases your library subscribes to.)

Bibliographies list resources on a specific topic. A good, current bibliography can be used as an example when you compile your own bibliography on a topic.

Abstracts, like indexes, direct you to articles on a particular topic. But abstracts also summarize those materials so you learn whether a resource is relevant before you invest time in locating and reading it. Abstracts are usually organized into subject areas: Computer Abstracts, Environmental Abstracts, Social Work Abstracts. They are incorporated in many online subscription databases.

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■ Finding Periodical Articles Periodicals are publications or broadcasts produced at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly). Although some periodicals are broad in their subject matter and audience, as a rule they focus on a narrow range of topics geared toward a particular audience.

■ Daily newspapers and newscasts provide up-to-date information on current events, opinions, and trends—from politics to natural disasters (Wall Street Journal, USA Today, The NewsHour).

■ Weekly and monthly magazines generally provide more in-depth information on a wide range of topics (Time, Newsweek, 60 Minutes).

■ Journals, generally published quarterly, provide specialized scholarly information for a narrowly focused audience (English Journal).

With thousands of periodicals available, how do you find helpful articles? Learn (a) which search tools your library offers, (b) which periodicals it has available in which forms, and (c) how to gain access to those periodicals.

Search online databases. If your library subscribes to EBSCOhost, Lexis-Nexis, or another database service, use keyword searching (see pages 424–425) to find citations on your topic. You might start with the general version of such databases, such as EBSCOhost’s Academic Search Premier, which provides access to more than 4,100 scholarly publications covering all disciplines.

■ Basic Search: The example below shows an EBSCOhost search screen for a search on hybrid electric cars. Notice how limiters, expanders, and other advanced features help you find the highest-quality materials.

Database list Keyword field

Expanders available

Limiters available

Image courtesy of EBSCO Publishing

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Folder feature for “capturing” citations

“Sort” options

Numbered citations including titles, authors, journal information, length, location notes

Article links indicating article availability and format

Image courtesy of EBSCO Publishing

■ Advanced Search: A more focused research strategy would involve turning to specialized databases, which are available for virtually every discipline and are often an option within search services such as EBSCOhost (for example, Business Source Elite, PsycINFO, ERIC) and Lexis-Nexis (for example, Legal, Medical, and Business databases). If a basic search turns up little, turn to specialized databases, seeking help from a librarian if necessary. For a list of specialized databases, see page 457.

Generate citation lists of promising articles. Your database search should generate lists of citations, brief descriptions of articles that were flagged through keywords in titles, subject terms, abstracts, and so on. For example, a search focused on hybrid electric cars leads to the results shown below. At this point, study the results and do the following:

■ Refine the search by narrowing or expanding it. ■ Mark specific citations for “capture” or further study. ■ Re-sort the results. ■ Follow links in a specific citation to further information.

Particularly if you need articles published before 1985, you may need to go to the Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature or another print index. While databases are converting pre-1985 articles to digital form (for example, the JSTOR database), many excellent periodical articles are available only in print. To use the Readers’ Guide, consult a librarian.

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Study citations and capture identifying information. By studying citations (especially abstracts), you can determine three things:

■ Is this article relevant to your research? ■ Is an electronic, full-text version available? ■ If not, does the library have this periodical?

To develop your working bibliography (see pages 430–431), you should also “capture” the article’s identifying details by using the save, print, or e-mail function, or by recording the periodical’s title, the issue and date, and the article’s title and page numbers. These functions are shown in the EBSCOhost citation below.

Find and retrieve the full text of the article. When citations indicate that you have promising articles, access those articles efficiently, preferably through a direct link in the citation to an electronic copy. From there you can print, save, or e-mail the article. If the article is not available electronically, track down a print version:

■ Check the online citation to see if your library has the article. If necessary, check your library’s inventory of periodicals held; this list should be available online and/ or in print. Examine especially closely the issues and dates available, the form (print or microfilm), and the location (bound or current shelves).

■ To get the article, follow your library’s procedure. You may have to submit a request slip so that a librarian can get the periodical, or you may be able to get it yourself in the current, bound, or microfilm collection. If the article is not available online or in your library, use interlibrary loan.

Save options

Source link for more details or full text

Subject links for further research

Summary with keywords highlighted

Image courtesy of EBSCO Publishing

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Agricola offers citations from the National Agricultural Library group—with materials focused on issues from animal science to food and nutrition.

ARTbibliographies Modern abstracts articles, books, catalogs, and other resources on modern and contemporary art.

CAIRSS for Music offers bibliographic citations for articles on music-related topics, from music education to music therapy.

Communication & Mass Media Complete offers access to resources on topics like public speaking and TV broadcasting.

Engineering E-journal Search Engine offers free, full-text access to more than 150 online engineering journals.

ERIC offers citations, abstracts, and digests for more than 980 journals in the education field.

First Search, a fee-based information service, offers access to more than 30 scholarly databases in a range of disciplines.

GPO, the Government Printing Office, offers access to records for U.S. government documents (e.g., reports, hearings, judicial rules, addresses, and so on).

Health Source offers access to abstracts, indexing, and full-text material on health-related topics, from nutrition to sports medicine.

Ingenta offers citations for more than 25,000 journals, most in the sciences.

JSTOR offers full-text access to scholarly articles in a full range of disciplines, articles once available only in print.

Math Database offers article citations for international mathematics research.

Medline offers access to journals in medicine and medicine-related disciplines through references, citations, and abstracts.

MLA Bibliography provides bibliographic citations for articles addressing a range of modern- language and literature-related topics.

National Environmental Publications Internet Site (NEPIS) offers access to more than 6,000 EPA documents (full text, online).

PsycINFO offers access to materials in psychology and psychology-related fields (for example, social work, criminology, organizational behavior).

Scirus indexes science resources, citing article titles and authors, source publication information, and lines of text indicating the article’s content.

Vocation and Career Collection offers full-text access to more than 400 trade- and industry- related periodicals.

Worldwide Political Science Abstracts offers bibliographic citations in politics-related fields, from public policy to international law.

Databases for Disciplines Most libraries offer access to databases from a wide range of disciplines. Check your library’s website for access to databases like these:

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Learning-Outcomes Checklist Use the checklist below to assess what you have learned about getting started on a research project.

I understand the differences between primary and secondary sources, and I can make choices about them that fit my research project.

I can plan and conduct primary research such as informal surveys, interviews, observations, and analyses of documents and artifacts.

I have become familiar with my college library: its physical and online dimensions, especially the resources, search tools, and services it offers.

I can effectively find and work with reference works.

I can effectively find and work with books, especially scholarly and trade books.

I can effectively find and work with periodical articles available through library search tools.

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following activities.

1. Think about a research project that you have done or are doing now. How might primary research and library research (scholarly books and journals) strengthen your writing? Why not do all your research on the free web using Google and resources like Wikipedia?

2. For the subject “Gender Differences in Toy Preferences,” indicate whether the following sources would be considered primary or secondary (P or S):

a. Observing children in a day-care setting b. Journal article about gender-based differences in the brain c. Magazine article about a hot new toy d. Survey of day-care workers e. Boys’ Toys of the Fifties and Sixties (a book) f. Interviews with parents

3. By working with your library’s website and its orientation tools, identify where you can physically and/or electronically locate books, reference resources, and journals.

4. Indicate which section of the library would house the following items: a. JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) b. Places Rated Almanac c. Principles of Corporate Finance (book)

5. Brainstorm issues related to food production, consumption, or culture. Choosing one focused topic, use your library’s catalog and database tools to track down print books and periodical articles. Evaluate the nature, breadth, relevance, and quality of these resources for such a project. Then do a free-web search of the topic, comparing the results.

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Visually Speaking

Conducting Research on the Internet

What does the Internet map above tell you about Internet connections in the Western world? What about Internet use elsewhere? What do you think this map will look like in ten years? What does the map tell you about using the Internet for research?

The image below may look like a child’s scribble, but it shows something much more significant: city-to-city Internet connections. The bright tangle of lights on the left is the United States, and the bright tangle on the right is Europe. You’ll note, also, jags flying to cities in South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Asia.

Increasingly, the Internet is connecting the world. As you conduct research, you can not only find information from across the globe, but also can connect to the people who provide the information. This chapter helps you get the most out of the Internet as you prepare a research paper.

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand the basics of electronic research.

▶ Use search and metasearch to locate information.

▶ Use subject trees. ▶ Understand the strengths and limits of search engines and online resources.

▶ Evaluate the reliability of websites.

▶ Recognize appropriate and inappropriate sources.

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 Understanding Internet Basics Did you know that when you speak on your cell phone or send an e-mail, you are on the Internet? Did you know that the World Wide Web and the Internet are not the same? These two pages provide basic definitions and explanations of the digital world.

The Internet is a vast array of interconnected computers and computer networks. It began in 1969 with the ARPANET, a connection of U.S. government computers. Since then, the Internet has expanded into a worldwide system. E-mail, cell phones, and satellites all access and use the Internet, as do people on the World Wide Web.

The World Wide Web is a huge collection of websites and pages on the Internet, accessible through the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). Put simply, this protocol is a set of rules that allow computers to trade information. The World Wide Web was begun in 1989 by a British engineer named Tim Berners-Lee.

A uniform resource locator (URL) is the web address for each page available on the World Wide Web. Just as every home and business has a specific street address, every website has a specific web address that allows other computers to find and access it.

A domain name is the website address, often beginning with www and ending with an extension that indicates what type of site it is. Here is a list of common domain types:

A web browser is a program on your computer that provides access to the web. Common browsers include Internet Explorer, Safari, and Firefox.

http://www.ipl.org/div/subject/index.html

domain

extensionWorld Wide Web

pagehypertext transfer protocol

pathwebsite

.com a commercial or business site .gov a government site, for federal, state, or local government .edu an educational site .org a site for a nonprofit organization .net a site for an organization that belongs to the Internet’s infrastructure .mil a military site .biz a business site .info an information site

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A webpage is a specific grouping of information on the web. Webpages often including text, graphics, photographs, videos, and hyperlinks—which are words or graphics that can be clicked to take the user to different webpages.

A search engine is a specialized webpage that allows you to find specific terms on sites throughout the web. Here are some popular search engines:

Google http://www.google.com Bing http://www.bing.com Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com

Ask http://www.ask.com Dog Pile http://www.dogpile.com Ixquick http://www.ixquick.com

Complete Planet http://www.completeplanet.com

A metasearch engine is a web page that searches several other search engines at once, compiling the information. Here are some popular metasearch engines:

A deep-web tool is an Internet search engine or database that can access materials not available to basic search engines.

Common Webpage Elements

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Title bar

Navigation bar

Graphic link

Text links

Status bar

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 Using a Subject Guide/Directory A subject tree, sometimes called a subject guide or directory, lists websites that have been organized into categories by experts who have reviewed those sites. As such, a subject tree includes sites selected for reliability and quality.

1. Search-out the subject trees available to you. Check whether your library subscribes to a service such as NetFirst, a database in which subject experts have cataloged Internet resources by topic. Here are some other common subject directories:

WWW Virtual Library http://vlib.org/Overview.html

Ipl2 http://www.ipl.org/

Google Directory http://www.google.com/dirhp

LookSmart http://looksmart.com

2. Follow categories from broad to specific. A subject tree is arranged from general to specific, so you will need to begin by clicking on a broad category to see a more selective list. Clicking on subcategories will take you to progressively more focused lists. Read the name of a site, review the information beneath the name, check out the domain and extension, and decide if the site is worth exploring. If so, click on it. If not, go back and continue your search.

Common Subject Guide Elements

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Title bar

Search field

General category

Subcategories

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 Using Search and Metasearch Search and metasearch engines provide quick and powerful access to much of the content of the web. They are invaluable tools for researchers. This page gives tips for getting the most out of your searches, and the next two pages look at search in depth.

1. Select effective keywords: Keywords are words or phrases that the search engine looks for across the web. The more specific a keyword or phrase is, the more tightly a search will be focused. Here are a set of keywords for the research topic of “games used to simulate real-world scenarios”:

2. Use Boolean operators: In addition to using quotation marks, you can use words and symbols to make your search specific. (See also page 425.)

3. Act on search results: Once a search engine has generated a list of possible sites, you need to survey the results and act on them.

game This general term will produce a very unfocused list of millions of websites, ranging from stores selling games to recipes for cooking game.

simulation This more-specific term will narrow the search considerably, but will show off-topic sites such as suppliers of simulated wood products.

simulation game This set of keywords is much more specific, but the engine will also find sites using both words but not in combination.

“simulation game” The quotation marks around this search will turn up only sites that use the exact phrase “simulation game”

game and war and indicates sites with both terms

game + war + indicates sites with both terms

game not war not indicates sites with the first term but not the second

game – war – indicates sites with the first term but not the second

game or simulation or indicates sites with either term

■ Read the name of the site and determine how the term is used. ■ Review the domain and extension to decide if you will click it. ■ Look for information and links.

general

Specific

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 Using Search Engines as Research Tools Like millions of people, you probably “google it” when you have a question. But how should you use search engines for college research projects? A search engine is a program that automatically scours a large amount of web material using keywords and commands that you submit. In that respect, the search is only as productive as the terms you use, the quality of the search program, and the amount and areas of the web that the engine searches. When you use search engines, be aware of the issues below.

Web Coverage: Even though the largest search engines search billions of web resources, those pages represent just a portion of the web—as little as 20 percent. The point to keep in mind is that any given search engine is not searching the entire web for you and may be focusing on particular kinds of pages and documents. Moreover, a given engine may not be searching each resource in its entirety but only certain portions (e.g., citations) or up to a certain size of the document.

Resource Ranking: A search engine returns results in a ranking of resources based on complex mathematical algorithms—a weighing of a variety of criteria that differ from one engine to the next. One criterion used is the number of times your keywords appear in a given resource. A second criterion might be the number and type of links to a given page—a measure, in other words, of the site’s importance or popularity on the web. Moreover, organizations on the web work very hard to make sure that their pages get ranked near the top of searches; some companies hire consultants to help achieve this result or even try to fool the programs. In other words, what you are getting in your search is not necessarily an objective listing of the most relevant and reliable resources for an academic research project.

Search Habits: Using search engines is complicated not just by algorithms but by the habits of users themselves. Studies suggest, for example, that very few users look past the first three hits returned by a search, in fact, that only one percent of searchers go past the first ten hits. (You can understand, then, why some organizations work so hard to get into that top-ten list for specific keyword searches.) Moreover, very few users go on to refine their search after the initial results, supposedly satisfied with what they have found, although studies also suggest that few users can effectively evaluate the returned resources in terms of their quality, authority, objectivity, and timeliness (currency of information). The implications for your college research projects are clear: such search habits rarely lead to quality resources that you can use in an academic project.

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Use search engines well. Given how search engines work, what practices should you follow in using them for an academic research project? Obviously, start by following the assignment’s restrictions about using free-web resources. But here are four additional guidelines:

1. Restrict search-engine use to specific purposes. Generally, a search engine is useful for college research projects in these circumstances:

■ You have a very narrow topic in mind or an exact question you need answered. ■ You have a highly specific word or phrase to use in your search. ■ You want a large number of results. ■ You are looking for a specific type of Internet file. ■ You have the time to sort the material for reliability.

2. Learn to do advanced searches. Basic searches tend to lead to basic results. Most search engines actually allow you to do quite complex searches through advanced- search screens. With these, you can employ Boolean logic to a degree, use limiters and expanders, and refine your results in other ways. Study the search engine’s help pages for instructions on how to benefit from these advanced-searching techniques.

3. Approach results with suspicion. Given the wide-ranging quality and reliability of material on the free web, it is imperative that you evaluate resources that you find through search engines. See “Evaluating Online Sources” on pages 468-471.

4. Use search engines that seem to give you more quality results. Try out a variety of search engines using the same search, and compare the results. While you generally want to choose search engines that cover a large portion of the web, offer quality indexing, and give you high-powered search capabilities, you also want to consider a search-engine’s information focus: try out search engines whose goals seem more obviously focused on academics. Below are some suggestions.

■ Internet Public Library: http://www.ipl.org Offering access to electronic reference resources, to e-books and electronic articles, and to special collections, this site’s chief resource is its subject collections of web resources.

■ Infomine: http://infomine.ucr.edu Subtitled Scholarly Internet Resource Collections, this librarian-built site is designed for college and university faculty and students; the site offers researchers access to databases, electronic journals and books, and more, including government information.

■ LookSmart Find Articles.com: http://findarticles.com This commercial site can give you citations for articles on your topic, although getting full-text access may involve fees.

■ Google Scholar: http://scholar.google.com While it indexes just a small portion of all published articles, Google Scholar can help you build citations from a variety of sources, citations you can then find in your library’s subscription databases. Moreover, it ranks articles by weighing the full text, the author, the publication, and frequency of citation in other sources.

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 Understanding the Uses and Limits of Wikipedia You likely recognize the screen below—an article from Wikipedia. From its beginning in 2001 to today, a large population of volunteer writers and editors has made Wikipedia a top- ten Internet-traffic site. But is Wikipedia acceptable for college-level research? Put simply, Wikipedia is a controversial resource for academic research.

Know Wikipedia’s strengths. Because of its wiki nature, Wikipedia offers researchers a number of advantages.

■ Consensus Model of Knowledge: Articles represent a collaborative agreement about a topic—a topical knowledge base that is fair and fairly comprehensive. Generally, articles improve over time, offering “open-source” knowledge.

■ Currency of Information: Because they are web-based, articles are regularly monitored and updated—a distinct advantage over print encyclopedias.

■ Breadth of Information: With its size and global community, Wikipedia offers articles on a wide range of topics—especially strong in pop culture, current events, computer, and science topics.

■ Links: Articles are linked throughout so that readers can pursue associated topics, sources, recommended reading, and related categories.

Understand Wikipedia’s standards for truth. Wikipedia applies a different standard of truth than more traditional sources of information. In his revealing article, “Wikipedia and the Meaning of Truth,” Simson L. Garfinkle provides the following explanation. (See pages 239–243 for the complete essay.)

Unlike the laws of mathematics or science, wikitruth isn’t based on principles such as consistency or observability. It’s not even based on common sense or firsthand experience. Wikipedia has evolved a radically different set of epistemological standards—standards that aren’t especially surprising given that the site is rooted in a Web-based community, but that should concern those of us who are interested in traditional notions of truth and accuracy. On Wikipedia, objective truth isn’t all that important, actually. What makes a fact or statement fit for inclusion is that it appeared in some other publication—ideally, one that is in English and is available free online. “The threshold for inclusion in Wikipedia is verifiability, not truth,” states Wikipedia’s official policy on the subject.

Verifiability is one of Wikipedia’s three core content policies; it was codified back in August 2003. The two others are “no original research” (December 2003) and “neutral point of view,” which the Wikipedia project inherited from Nupedia, an earlier volunteer- written Web-based free encyclopedia that existed from March 2000 to September 2003 (Wikipedia’s own NPOV policy was codified in December 2001). These policies have made Wikipedia a kind of academic agora where people on both sides of politically charged subjects can rationally discuss their positions, find common ground, and unemotionally document their differences. Wikipedia is successful because these policies have worked.

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Know Wikipedia’s weaknesses. In some ways, Wikipedia’s strengths are closely related to its weaknesses for college-level research. Consider these issues:

Use Wikipedia cautiously. Based on Wikipedia’s strengths and weaknesses, follow these guidelines:

1. Respect your assignment. Instructors may give you varied instruction about using Wikipedia. Respect their guidelines.

2. Verify Wikipedia information. If you use information from Wikipedia, also use other more traditional sources to verify that information.

3. Use Wikipedia as a semi-authoritative reference source. Generally, the more academic your research assignment, the less you should rely on Wikipedia articles, which are essentially sources of basic and background information.

4. Use Wikipedia as one starting point. From a Wikipedia article, you can learn what is considered “open-source” knowledge on your topic, gather ideas for developing a topic, find links to related topics and other resources, and begin to build a bibliography.

5. Study individual articles to get a sense of their reliability. When you find a Wikipedia article relevant to your research project, check the article for quality and stability. Use the evaluation criteria on the following pages, but also check the article’s history, its discussion page, any tags or icons indicating the article’s state, and the “what links here” link in the toolbox at the left of the screen.

■ Popularity Model of Knowledge: The dynamics of popularity can lead to bias, imbalance, and errors. In some ways, this approach minimizes the value of training, education, and expertise while promoting a kind of democracy of knowledge.

■ Anonymity of Authorship: Wikipedia allows contributors to remain anonymous. Researchers thus have little way of checking credentials and credibility.

■ Variable Quality of Content: While many well-established articles are quite stable, balanced, and comprehensive, other articles can be partial, driven by a biased perspective, erroneous, and poorly sourced.

■ Variable Coverage: Wikipedia’s strength in some content areas is matched by gaps and incompleteness in other content areas.

■ Vulnerability to Vandalism: Wikipedia has a number of processes in place to limit people from harming articles with misinformation, with the result that most vandalism is corrected within hours, but some errors have persisted for months.

■ Tertiary Nature of Information: For most research projects, Wikipedia articles function as tertiary sources—reports of reports of research. As such, Wikipedia articles are not substantial enough for academic projects.

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 Evaluating Online Sources The Internet contains a wealth of information, but much of it is not suitable for a research report. The information may be incorrect, biased, outdated, plagiarized, or otherwise unreliable. These pages discuss issues to watch for.

Assignment Restrictions Before engaging any web resources, carefully review your assignment and note any restrictions on what type of sources may be used. If web resources are allowed, abide by the number or percentage indicated in the assignment.

Author/Organization When using web resources, make sure the sites are sponsored by legitimate, recognizable organizations: government agencies, nonprofit groups, and educational institutions. For most projects, avoid relying on personal or special-interest sites, as well as chat rooms, blogs, news groups, or wikis. (These sources may help you explore a topic, but they do not provide scholarly material suitable for most research reports.)

Balance or Bias Be aware of the purpose of a site or an article. Editorials and reviews, for example, express the point of view of a given author but are not sources for unbiased information. Unless your purpose is to show the author’s point of view or point out two sides of an argument, avoid sources that show a bias toward or against a specific region, country, political party, industry, gender, race, ethnic group, or religion. Also, avoid sites that promote a specific cause, product, service, or belief.

Quality of Information Test the quality of information on a site. Note whether the information is current (when was it posted/updated last) and check it against other sources for corroboration. Also, favor sites with a depth of information and those that show they truly engage their topic rather than treating it superficially.

Quality of Writing and Design Avoid sites that show sloppy editing and poor design. These surface flaws can reveal a lack of scholarly rigor or serious commitment on the part of the site’s creators.

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Evaluation Checklist Use this checklist to assess the reliability of web sources. The more items you check off, the more reliable the source is.

Assignment Restrictions

1. Does the source fit with the type and number allowed in the assignment?

Author/Organization

2. Is the person or organization behind the site reliable? 3. Is contact information for the person or organization provided? 4. Is the site well known and well connected in the field? 5. Does the site have a clear “About Us” page and mission statement?

Balance or Bias

6. Is the material on the site balanced and unbiased? 7. Does the site avoid unfair and inflammatory language? 8. Does the site avoid pushing a particular product, cause, service, or belief? 9. Does the site provide ample support for its claims? 10. Does the site avoid logical fallacies and twisted statistics? (See pages

257–260.)

Quality of Information

11. Is the material current? 12. Is the website often updated? 13. Is the website information-rich? 14. Is the information backed up by other reputable print and online sources?

Quality of Writing and Design

15. Is the text free of errors in punctuation, spelling, and grammar? 16. Is the site effectively and clearly designed?

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 Sample Evaluations

Assignment Restrictions

Author/ Organization

Balance or Bias

Quality of Information

Quality of Writing

and Design

Reliable

■ The site below would be appropriate for most assignments about the life and work of William Faulkner, as long as free-web sources are allowed.

■ This site is sponsored by the University of Mississippi, a scholarly source for information, and the article’s author, Dr. John B. Padgett, is an authority on Faulkner.

■ The site clearly extols Faulkner as a great writer but does not shy from showing his shortcomings. The claims are fair and amply supported, without logical fallacies.

■ The website is current, often updated, and information-rich. It is also connected to many other Faulkner resources available on the web.

■ The site is well designed, with easy navigation, readable text, informative headings, helpful photos, and strong links. The text is well written and well edited.

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Unreliable

■ As a blog, the made-up website below would not be appropriate for an assignment about the life and work of William Faulkner. A site such as this should be recognized as ref lective only of the writer’s opinion, not of reliable information or fact.

■ There is no author or organization listed for this website. The domain name— myviewsonliterature.wordpress.com—shows that this is a personal opinion blog. Its lack of connection to other websites shows it represents an isolated opinion.

■ This blog post shows a strong bias against William Faulkner. The few facts cited inadequately support the writer’s main point, and logical fallacies are apparent. The tone of the post is unscholarly, with inf lammatory language.

■ Though this website is frequently updated, the blog post does not represent current scholarship about William Faulkner. The website is information-poor and is not backed up by any reputable print or online sources.

■ The site has an amateurish design and numerous errors, including the persistent misspelling of William Faulkner’s name. The writing is slipshod and the editing is poor.

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Learning-Outcomes Checklist As you conduct Internet research, use the following checklist:

I understand the differences between the Internet, the World Wide Web, and the deep web.

I know how to use subject trees to discover high-quality, vetted sites for my research.

I understand how to use search and metasearch, selecting effective key terms and using Boolean operators.

I understand the strengths and limits of search engines such as Google and online resources such as Wikipedia; I can use these tools effectively.

I understand the source restrictions on the assignment.

I have carefully evaluated each Internet source for credible authorship, reliable sponsorship, lack of bias, currency, accuracy, logical support, and quality design.

I know the warning signs of unreliable sources.

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following activities.

1. Explore your library’s handouts and website for information about Internet research. What services, support, and access does the library provide? Explore the various resources with your own major in mind, and draft an informal report to share with your instructor and classmates about the resources available in your discipline.

2. With a current research project in one of your classes as the focus, conduct a search for this project using a search engine listed on page 461. Save useful URLs and articles in the research file. Then use one of the subject trees on page 462 to investigate and evaluate potential websites for the same project. Save useful URLs and articles. Compare and contrast these two processes for finding Internet information.

3. Using the variety of methods outlined in this chapter, work with some classmates to search the Internet for information on a controversial topic, event, person, or place. Carefully analyze and evaluate the range of web information you find— the quality, perspective, depth, and reliability. Create a report on your findings for the rest of the class.

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473

When you write a research paper, you enter a larger conversation about your topic. The paper should center on your own ideas while thoughtfully engaging with the ideas of others. Crediting sources ensures that each voice in the conversation is fairly represented.

This chapter focuses on effective and conscientious use of sources in your writing, with tips for avoiding source abuse and plagiarism. It also helps you write a first draft of your paper.

Drafting a Paper with Documented Research30

How does the photograph above connote the process of deciding what sources to include in a paper?

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand and avoid

plagiarism.

▶ Avoid other source abuses. ▶ Organize and synthesize

your findings.

▶ Develop your first draft. ▶ Use source material in your

writing.

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 Avoiding Plagiarism The road to plagiarism may be paved with the best intentions—or the worst. Either way, the result is still a serious academic offense. As you write your research paper, do everything you can to stay off that road! Start by studying your school’s and your instructor’s guidelines on plagiarism and other academic offenses. Then study the following pages.

What is plagiarism? Plagiarism is using someone else’s words, ideas, or images (what’s called intellectual property) so they appear to be your own. When you plagiarize, you use source material— whether published in print or online—without acknowledging the source. In this sense, plagiarism refers to a range of thefts:

■ Submitting a paper you didn’t write yourself. ■ Pasting large chunks of a source into your paper and passing it off as

your own work. ■ Using summaries, paraphrases, or quotations without documentation. ■ Using the exact phrasing of a source without quotation marks. ■ Mixing up source material and your own ideas—failing to distinguish

between the two.

The passage below is from page 87 of “Some Stories Have to Be Told by Me: A Literary History of Alice Munro,” by Marcela Valdes, published in the Virginia Quarterly Review 82.3 (Summer 2006).

What makes Munro’s characters so enthralling is their inconsistency; like real people, at one moment they declare they will cover the house in new siding, at the next, they vomit on their way to the hospital. They fight against and seek refuge in the people they love. The technique that Munro has forged to get at such contradictions is a sort of pointillism, the setting of one bright scene against another, with little regard for chronology.

Plagiarism refers to more than “word theft.” Because plagiarism is really about failing to credit ideas and information, the rules also apply to visual images, tables, graphs, charts, maps, music, videos, and so on.

fyi

What does plagiarism look like? Plagiarism refers to a range of source abuses. What exactly do these violations look like? Read the passage below, and then review the five types of plagiarism that follow, noting how each misuses the source.

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 Submitting Another Writer’s Paper The most blatant plagiarism is taking an entire piece of writing and claiming it as your own work. Examples:

■ Downloading, reformatting, and submitting an article as your own work. ■ Buying a paper from a “paper mill” or taking a “free” paper off the Internet. ■ Turning in another student’s work as your own (see “Falstaffing” on page 479).

Just as it’s easy to plagiarize using the Internet, it’s easy for your professors to recognize and track down plagiarism using Internet tools.fyi

 Using Copy and Paste It is unethical to take chunks of material from another source and splice them into your paper without acknowledgment. In the example below, the writer pastes in a sentence from the original article (boldfaced) without using quotation marks or a citation. Even if the writer changed some words, it would still be plagiarism.

Life typically unfolds mysteriously for Munro’s characters, with unexplained events and choices. Like real people, at one moment they declare they will cover the house in new siding, at the next, they vomit on their way to the hospital.

 Failing to Cite a Source Borrowed material must be documented. Even if you use information accurately and fairly, don’t neglect to cite the source. Below, the writer correctly summarizes the passage’s idea but offers no citation.

For the reader, the characters in Munro’s stories are interesting because they are so changeable. Munro shows these changes by using a method of placing scenes side by side for contrast, without worrying about the chronological connections.

 Neglecting Necessary Quotation Marks Whether it’s a paragraph or a phrase, if you use the exact wording of a source, that material must be enclosed in quotation marks. In the example below, the writer cites the source but doesn’t use quotation marks around a phrase taken from the original (boldfaced).

What makes Munro’s characters so typically human is that they fight against and seek refuge in the people they love (Valdes 87).

 Confusing Borrowed Material with Your Own Ideas Through carelessness (often in note taking), you may confuse source material with your own thinking. Below, the writer indicates that he borrowed material in the first sentence, but fails to indicate that he also borrowed the next sentence.

As Marcela Valdes explains, “[w]hat makes Munro’s characters so enthralling is their inconsistency” (87). To achieve this sense of inconsistency, Munro places brightly lit scenes beside each other in a kind of pointillist technique.

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Why is plagiarism serious? Perhaps the answer is obvious. But some people operate with the notion that material on the Internet (whether text, graphics, or sound) is “free” and, therefore, fair game for research writing. After all, a lot of stuff on the web doesn’t even list an author, so what’s the harm? Here’s some food for thought:

 Academic Dishonesty At its heart, plagiarism is cheating—stealing intellectual property and passing it off as one’s own work. Colleges take such dishonesty seriously. Plagiarism, whether intentional or unintentional, will likely be punished in one or more ways:

■ A failing grade for the assignment ■ A failing grade for the course ■ A note on your academic transcript (often seen by potential employers) that failure

resulted from academic dishonesty ■ Expulsion from college

 Theft from the Academic Community The research paper represents your dialogue with other members of the academic community—classmates, the instructor, others in your major, others who have researched the topics, and so on. When you plagiarize, you short-circuit the dialogue:

■ You gain an unfair advantage over your classmates who follow the rules and earn their grades.

■ You disrespect other writers, researchers, and scholars. ■ You disrespect your readers by passing off others’ ideas as your own. ■ You insult your instructor, a person whose respect you need. ■ You harm your college by risking its reputation and its academic integrity.

 Now and in the Future Because research projects help you master course-related concepts and writing skills, plagiarism robs you of an opportunity to learn either. Moreover, you rob yourself of your integrity and reputation. After all, as a student you are seeking to build your credibility within the broader academic community, your major, and your future profession.

In addition, research projects often train you for your future work in terms of research, thinking, and writing skills—skills that you will need to succeed in the workplace. If you do not learn the skills now, you will enter the workplace without them—a situation that your employer will, at some point, find out.

One tool to deter plagiarism is Turnitin.com. Students submit their papers for comparison against millions of webpages and other student papers. Students and instructors get reports about originality and matching text. For more on this tool, visit www.thecollegewriter.com/4e.

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Chapter 30 Drafting a Paper with Documented Research 477

How do I avoid plagiarism? Preventing plagiarism begins the moment you get an assignment. Essentially, prevention requires your commitment and diligence throughout the project.

Resist temptation. With the Internet, plagiarism is a mouse click away. Avoid last- minute all-nighters that make you desperate; start research projects early. Note : It’s better to ask for an extension or accept a penalty for lateness than to plagiarize.

Play by the rules. Become familiar with your college’s definition, guidelines, and policies regarding plagiarism so that you don’t unknowingly violate them. When in doubt, ask your instructor for clarification.

Take orderly, accurate notes. From the start, carefully keep track of source material and distinguish it from your own thinking. Specifically, do the following:

■ Maintain an accurate working bibliography (pages 430–431). ■ Adopt a decent note-taking system (pages 432–435). ■ Accurately summarize, paraphrase, and quote sources in your notes

(pages 436–438).

Document borrowed material. Credit information that you have summarized, paraphrased, or quoted from any source, whether that information is statistics, facts, graphics, phrases, or ideas. Readers can then see what’s borrowed and what’s yours, understand your support, and do their own follow-up research.

Common Knowledge Exception : Common knowledge is information—a basic fact, for instance—that is generally known to readers or easily found in several sources, particularly reference works. Such knowledge need not be cited. However, when you go beyond common knowledge into research f indings, interpretations of the facts, theories, explanations, claims, arguments, and graphics, you must document the source. Study the examples below, but whenever you are in doubt, document.

Examples: ■ The fact that automakers are developing hybrid-electric cars is common

knowledge, whereas the details of GM’s AUTOnomy project are not. ■ The fact that Shakespeare wrote Hamlet is common knowledge, whereas

the details of his sources are not.

Work carefully with source material in your paper. See pages 484–487 for more on integrating and documenting sources, but here, brief ly, are your responsibilities:

■ Distinguish borrowed material from your own thinking by signaling where source material begins and ends.

■ Indicate the source’s origin with an attributive phrase and a citation (parenthetical reference or footnote).

■ Provide full source information in a works-cited or references page.

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Research and Writing478

 Avoiding Other Source Abuses Plagiarism, though the most serious offense, is not the only source abuse to avoid when writing a paper with documented research. Consider these pitfalls, which refer again to the sample passage on page 474.

 Using Sources Inaccurately When you get a quotation wrong, botch a summary, paraphrase poorly, or misstate a statistic, you misrepresent the original. In this quotation, the writer carelessly uses several wrong words that change the meaning, as well as adding two words that are not in the original.

As Marcela Valdes explains, “[w]hat makes Munro’s characters so appalling is their consistency. . . . They fight against and seek refuse in the people they say they love” (87).

 Using Source Material Out of Context By ripping a statement out of its context and forcing it into yours, you can make a source seem to say something that it didn’t really say. This writer uses part of a statement to say the opposite of the original.

According to Marcela Valdes, while Munro’s characters are interesting, Munro’s weakness as a fiction writer is that she shows “little regard for chronology” (87).

 Overusing Source Material When your paper reads like a string of references, especially quotations, your own thinking disappears. The writer below takes the source passage, chops it up, and splices it together.

Anyone who has read her stories knows that “[w]hat makes Munro’s characters so enthralling is their inconsistency.” That is to say, “like real people, at one moment they declare they will cover the house in new siding, at the next, they vomit on their way to the hospital.” Moreover, “[t]hey fight against and seek refuge in the people they love.” This method “that Munro has forged to get at such contradictions is a sort of pointillism,” meaning “the setting of one bright scene against another, with little regard for chronology” (Valdes 87)

 “Plunking” Quotations When you “plunk” quotations into your paper by failing to prepare the reader for them and follow them up, the discussion becomes choppy and disconnected. The writer below interrupts the f low of ideas with a quotation “out of the blue.” In addition, the quotation hangs at the end of a paragraph with no follow-up.

Typically, characters such as Del Jordan, Louisa Doud, and Almeda Roth experience a crisis through contact with particular men. “They fight against and seek refuge in the people they love” (Valdes 87).

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 Using “Blanket” Citations Your reader shouldn’t have to guess where borrowed material begins and ends. For example, if you place a parenthetical citation at the end of a paragraph, does that citation cover the whole paragraph or just the final sentence?

 Relying Heavily on One Source If your writing is dominated by one source, readers may doubt the depth and integrity of your research. Instead, your writing should show your reliance on a balanced diversity of sources.

 Failing to Match In-Text Citations to Bibliographic Entries All in-text citations must clearly refer to accurate entries in the works-cited, references, or endnotes page. Mismatching occurs in the following circumstances:

■ An in-text citation refers to a source that is not listed in the bibliography. ■ A bibliographic resource is never actually referenced anywhere in the paper.

 Related Academic Offenses Beyond plagiarism and related source abuses, steer clear of these academic offenses:

Double-dipping: When you submit one paper in two different classes without permission from both instructors, you take double credit for one project.

Falstaffing: This practice refers to a particular type of plagiarism in which one student submits another student’s work. Know that you are guilty of Falstaffing if you let another student submit your paper.

Copyright violations: When you copy, distribute, and/or post in whole or in part any intellectual property without permission from or payment to the copyright holder, you commit a copyright infringement, especially when you profit from this use. To avoid copyright violations in your research projects, do the following:

■ Observe fair use guidelines: Quote small portions of a document for limited purposes, such as education or research. Avoid copying large portions for your own gain.

■ Understand what’s in the public domain: You need not obtain permission to copy and use public domain materials—primarily documents created by the government, but also some material posted on the Internet as part of the “copy left” movement.

■ Observe intellectual property and copyright laws: First, know your college’s policies on copying documents. Second, realize that copyright protects the expression of ideas in a range of materials—writings, videos, songs, photographs, drawings, computer software, and so on. Always obtain permission to copy and distribute copyrighted materials.

■ Avoid changing a source (e.g., a photo) without permission of the creator or copyright holder.

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Research and Writing480

 Organizing and Synthesizing Your Findings Your research may generate a mass of notes, printouts, photocopies, electronic files, and more. The challenge is to move from this mass to a coherent structure for the paper you need to write. If you have systematically taken good notes (see pages 432–435), you are well on the way. In addition, the tips below and on the next page will help you move toward order.

Develop your ideas. Good thinking is foundational to good research writing. To develop ideas for your research project, follow these steps:

Refocus on your research questions and working thesis. Has research changed your perspective and position?

Study the evidence. Review your materials once, twice, or more—as long as it takes for ideas to percolate and information to make sense. Consider these questions:

■ Is the information complete or at least sufficient for the project? ■ Does the information seem reliable and accurate? ■ How does the information relate to the topic? ■ What connections exist among different pieces of evidence? ■ Does the information gathered fall naturally into patterns?

Develop sound conclusions through analysis and synthesis. Practice these strategies (and check pages 18–25 for more on sound thinking):

■ Work against personal biases that create blind spots to what the evidence is saying. Be open to different angles provided by all the evidence. Think through both pros and cons.

■ Practice logic in your analysis, but also tap into your intuition, creativity, and imagination.

■ Interpret statistical data carefully and correctly. ■ Logically distinguish between causes and effects; carefully link them. ■ If you are comparing, make sure that the items can logically be compared,

and make sure that you think through both similarities and differences. ■ Avoid either/or and black-and-white thinking, as well as circular arguments,

slippery slope claims, and sweeping generalizations. (See logical fallacies at pages 257–260.)

■ Check your conclusions against counterarguments, your experience, and common sense. For example, what are the limits of hybrid-vehicle technology? What does your experience with cars and with culture tell you about how technological changes happen and get accepted?

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Develop a structure for delivering research results. Using your research questions and conclusions as guides, sift through and order your information. Consider these strategies:

Follow assignment recommendations. A pattern for your paper may be built into the assignment. For example, you may be asked to write a comparison/contrast paper. Shape your outline within that framework.

Clump and split. Using key ideas as main headings, arrange support and evidence under the most fitting heading. Depending on the note-taking system you used, separate and pile note cards, sketch out the structure on paper, use a graphic organizer (see pages 52–53), use a code system, copy and paste material electronically, or cut up your note pages. After categorizing information, decide how best to sequence the key ideas.

Rely on tested patterns. The patterns below offer sound methods for developing your thinking. Each choice offers a basic structure for your paper, but several patterns may be useful within your paper’s body.

■ Argumentation asserts and supports a claim, counters any opposition, and then reasserts the claim (perhaps in a modified form). See pages 249–304.

■ Cause/effect can (1) explore the factors that led to an event or (2) explore the consequences of a specific event. See pages 163–180.

■ Chronological order puts items in a sequence (order of events, steps in a process). See pages 215–230.

■ Classification groups details based on their common traits or qualities. See pages 201–214.

■ Comparison/contrast shows similarities and/or differences between specific elements of a topic. See pages 181–200.

■ Description orders details in terms of spatial relationships, color, form, texture, and so on. See pages 141–160.

■ Explanation clarifies how something works by breaking the object or phenomenon into parts or phases and then showing how they work together. See pages 215–230.

■ Order of importance arranges items from most to least important, or least to most.

■ Partitioning breaks down an object, a space, or a location into ordered parts, or a process into steps or phases.

■ Problem/solution states a problem, explores its causes and effects, and presents solutions. See pages 305–322.

■ Question/answer moves back and forth from questions to answers in a sequence that logically clarifies a topic

For more help developing a structure, see pages 48–53.

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Research and Writing

Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

482

 Developing Your First Draft As you write your paper, your first goal is to develop and support your ideas—referring to sources, not being dominated by them. The discussion that follows will help you achieve this goal. Your second goal is to respect sources by integrating them naturally and providing correct documentation; that goal is addressed on pages 484–487.

Choose a drafting method. Before starting your draft, choose a drafting method that makes sense for your project and your writing style. Consider these two options or something in between:

 Writing Systematically

1. Develop a detailed outline, including supporting evidence.

2. Arrange your notes in precise order.

3. Write methodically, following your thesis, outline, and notes.

4. Cite your sources as you write.

 Writing Freely

1. Review your working thesis and notes. Then set them aside.

2. If you need to, jot down a brief outline.

3. Write away—get all your research-based thinking down on paper.

4. Going back to your notes, develop your draft further and integrate citations.

Shape your first draft. Develop the following parts in any order.

Draft an introduction. The introduction should do three things. First, it should say something interesting or surprising to gain your readers’ attention. Second, the introduction should focus in on your topic by establishing some common ground. Third, your introduction should identify the issue or challenge related to your topic, and then offer your thesis. Consider these options:

■ Begin with a revealing story or quotation. ■ Give important background information. ■ Offer a series of interesting or surprising facts. ■ Cite details showing the topic’s relevance. ■ Provide important definitions. ■ Introduce a problem, an issue, a challenge, a puzzle, or a confusion about your topic. ■ Identify the purpose and scope of your research. ■ Identify your focus or thesis. ■ Forecast how you will develop and support your thesis.

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Draft the body. How do you develop a complete and insightful research paper? How do you add dimension and depth to your writing? For starters, you make sure that you have carefully explored and ref lected on your specific topic. You also make sure that you have gathered plenty of compelling evidence to support your thesis.

It’s in the main part of your paper—in the body—that you develop your thesis. The process usually works in this way: You present each main point supporting your thesis, expand on the points logically, include solid evidence such as facts or examples, and then offer additional analysis or documentation as needed.

Another way to approach your writing is to envision it as a series of paragraph clusters—one cluster of paragraphs for each main point. As you write, you imagine yourself conversing with your readers, telling them what they need to know, and communicating it as clearly and interestingly as you can.

Draft a conclusion. An effective closing adds to the reader’s understanding of a research paper. The first part of the closing usually reviews (or ties together) important points in the paper, reinforces or reasserts the thesis, and/or draws a conclusion. The closing’s final lines may expand the scope of the text by making a connection between the paper and the reader’s experience, or between the paper and life in general.

Create a working title. At any point in the writing process, jot down possible titles that capture your paper’s focused topic, research discoveries, and spirit. Consider key words and phrases that hint at your paper’s thesis. For some papers, you may want to create a main title and a subtitle, separated by a colon.

TIPS for research writing

■ As you draft your paper, keep the focus on your own thoughts. You don’t want your paper to read like a strung-together series of references to other sources.

■ Present your own ideas honestly and clearly. Although you will be considering the research of others, be sure to analyze this information yourself and relate your sources to one another. Work at offering your personal perspective on the topic.

■ Your instructor may want your thesis in a specific location (perhaps in the last sentence of your first paragraph). Follow her or his wishes.

■ Don’t try to cram everything you’ve learned into your draft. Select material that is truly needed to develop your thesis.

■ Avoid overusing one particular source; also avoid using too many direct quotations.

■ To avoid accidental plagiarism, indicate the sources of all borrowed facts as you write your draft. (See “Avoiding Plagiarism,” pages 474–477.)

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Research and Writing484

 Using Source Material in Your Writing After you’ve found good sources and taken good notes on them, you want to use that research effectively in your writing. Specifically, you want to show (1) what information you are borrowing and (2) where you got it. By doing so, you create credibility. This section shows you how to develop credibility by integrating and documenting sources so as to avoid plagiarism and other abuses. Note: For a full treatment of documentation, see chapter 31 (MLA) and chapter 32 (APA).

Integrate source material carefully. Source material—whether a summary, a paraphrase, or a quotation—should be integrated smoothly into your discussion. Follow these strategies:

 The Right Reasons Focus on what you want to say, not on all the source material you’ve collected. Use sources to do the following:

■ Deepen and develop your point with the reasoning offered by a source. ■ Support your point and your thinking about it with evidence—with facts, statistics,

details, and so on. ■ Give credibility to your point with an expert’s supporting statement. ■ Bring your point to life with an example, an observation, a case study, an anecdote, or

an illustration. ■ Address a counterargument or an alternative.

 Quotation Restraint In most research documents, restrict your quoting to nuggets:

■ Key statements by authorities (e.g., the main point that a respected Shakespeare scholar makes about the role of Ophelia in Hamlet)

■ Well-phrased claims and conclusions (e.g., a powerful conclusion by an ethicist about the problem with the media’s coverage of cloning debates and technological developments)

■ Passages where careful word-by-word analysis and interpretation are important to your argument (e.g., an excerpt from a speech made by a politician about the International Space Station—a passage that requires a careful analysis for the between-the-lines message)

Quotations, especially long ones, must pull their weight, so generally paraphrase or summarize source material instead.

Primary Document Exception: When a primary text (a novel, a piece of legislation, a speech) is a key piece of evidence or the actual focus of your project, careful analysis of quoted excerpts is required. See pages 446–447 for more.

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Chapter 30 Drafting a Paper with Documented Research

The motivation and urgency to create and improve hybrid-electric technology

comes from a range of complex forces. Some of these forces are economic, others

environmental, and still others social. In “Societal Lifestyle Costs of Cars with

Alternative Fuels/Engines,” Joan Ogden, Robert Williams, and Eric Larson argue

that “[c]ontinued reliance on current transportation fuels and technologies poses

serious oil supply insecurity, climate change, and urban air pollution risks” (7).

Because of the nonrenewable nature of fossil fuels as well as their negative side

effects, the transportation industry is confronted with making the most radical

changes since the introduction of the internal-combustion automobile more than

100 years ago. Hybrid-electric vehicles are one response to this pressure.

Writer’s ideas

Attributive phrase

Paraphrase, quotation, or summary Citation

Commentary

Conclusion

485

 Smooth Integration When you use quotations, work them into your writing as smoothly as possible. To do so, you need to pay attention to style, punctuation, and syntax. (See pages 486–487.)

Use enough of the quotation to make your point without changing the meaning of the original. Use quotation marks around key phrases taken from the source.

Ogden, Williams, and Larson also conclude that the hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle is “a strong candidate for becoming the Car of the Future,” given the trend toward “tighter environmental constraints” and the “intense efforts underway” by automakers to develop commercially viable versions of such vehicles (25).

Integrate all sources thoughtfully. Fold source material into your discussion by relating it to your own thinking. Let your ideas guide the way, not your sources, by using this pattern:

1. State and explain your idea, creating a context for the source.

2. Identify and introduce the source, linking it to your discussion.

3. Summarize, paraphrase, or quote the source, providing a citation in an appropriate spot.

4. Use the source by explaining, expanding, or refuting it.

5. When appropriate, refer back to a source to further develop the ideas it contains.

Sample Passage: Note the integration of sources in the paragraph below.

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Research and Writing486

Effectively document your sources. Just as you need to integrate source material carefully into your writing, so you must also carefully document where that source material comes from. Readers should recognize which material is yours and which material is not.

Identify clearly where source material begins. Your discussion must offer a smooth transition to source material. Follow the guidelines below:

■ For first reference to a source, use an attributive statement that indicates some of the following: author’s name and credentials, title of the source, nature of the study or research, and helpful background.

Joan Ogden, Robert Williams, and Eric Larson, members of the Princeton Environmental Institute, explain that modest improvements in energy efficiency and emissions reductions will not be enough over the next century because of anticipated transportation increases (7).

■ For subsequent references to a source, use a simplified attributive phrase, such as the author’s last name or a shortened version of the title.

Ogden, Williams, and Larson go on to argue that “[e]ffectively addressing environmental and oil supply concerns will probably require radical changes in automotive engine/fuel technologies” (7).

■ In some situations, such as providing straightforward facts, simply skip the attributive phrase. The parenthetical citation supplies sufficient attribution.

Various types of transportation are by far the main consumers of oil (three fourths of world oil imports); moreover, these same technologies are responsible for one fourth of all greenhouse gas sources (Ogden, Williams, and Larson 7).

■ The verb you use to introduce source material is key. Use fitting verbs, such as those in the table below. Normally, use the present tense. Use the past tense only to stress the “pastness” of a source.

In their 2004 study, “Societal Lifecycle Costs of Cars with Alternative Fuels/ Engines,” Ogden, Williams, and Larson present a method for comparing and contrasting alternatives to internal-combustion engines. Earlier, these authors made preliminary steps . . .

accepts considers explains rejects acknowledges contradicts highlights reminds adds contrasts identifies responds affirms criticizes insists shares argues declares interprets shows asserts defends lists states believes denies maintains stresses cautions describes outlines suggests claims disagrees points out supports compares discusses praises urges concludes emphasizes proposes verifies confirms enumerates refutes warns

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Indicate where source material ends. Closing quotation marks and a citation, as shown below, indicate the end of a source quotation. Generally, place the citation immediately after any quotation, paraphrase, or summary. However, you may also place the citation early in the sentence or at the end if the parenthetical note is obviously obtrusive. When you discuss several details from a page in a source, use an attributive phrase at the beginning of your discussion and a single citation at the end.

As the “Lifestyle Costs” study concludes, when greenhouse gases, air pollution, and oil insecurity are factored into the analysis, alternative-fuel vehicles “offer lower LCCs than typical new cars” (Ogden, Williams, and Larson 25).

In their projections of where fuel-cell vehicles are heading, Ogden, Williams, and Larson discuss GM’s AUTOnomy vehicle, with its “radical redesign of the entire car. [. . .] In these cars, steering, braking, and other vehicle systems are controlled electronically rather than mechanically” (24).

As Ogden, Williams, and Larson explain, “[e]ven if such barriers [the high cost of fuel cells and the lack of an H2 fuel infrastructure] can be overcome, decades would be required before this embryonic technology could make major contributions in reducing the major externalities that characterize today’s cars” (25).

Toward the end of the study, Ogden, Williams, and Larson argue that changes to the fuel-delivery system must be factored into planning:

In charting a course to the Car of the Future, societal LCC comparisons should be complemented by considerations of fuel infrastructure requirements. Because fuel infrastructure changes are costly, the number of major changes made over time should be minimized. The bifurcated strategy advanced here—of focusing on the H2 FCV for the long term and advanced liquid hydrocarbon- fueled ICEVs and ICE/HEVs for the near term—would reduce the number of such infrastructure changes to one (an eventual shift to H2). (25)

Set off longer quotations. If a quotation is longer than four typed lines, set it off from the main text. Generally, introduce the quotation with a complete sentence and a colon. Indent the quotation one inch (10 spaces) and double-space it, but don’t put quotation marks around it. Put the citation outside the final punctuation mark.

Mark changes to quotations. You may shorten or change a quotation so that it fits smoothly into your sentence—but don’t alter the original meaning. Use an ellipsis within square brackets to indicate that you have omitted words from the original. An ellipsis is three periods with spaces between them.

Use square brackets to indicate a clarification or to change a pronoun or verb tense or to switch around uppercase and lowercase.

Chapters 2–7 contain additional tips. See pages 27–42 (Beginning the Writing Process), pages 43–54 (Planning), pages 55–70 (Drafting), pages 71–108 (Revising, Editing), and pages 109–112 (Submitting/Portfolios).

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Research and Writing488

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following critical-thinking and writing activities by yourself or with classmates.

1. With some classmates, debate the seriousness of plagiarism and the use of tools such as Turnitin.com.

2. Closely examine one of your most recent research papers. Have you followed this chapter’s guidelines? Where do you need to improve?

3. Review the list of source abuses on pages 478-479. Which of these abuses is most common in research writing? Which abuse is most serious? Write a page focusing on one type of source abuse and explaining its effect on scholarship.

Learning-Outcomes Checklist Use this checklist as a guide to help you plan your writing.

I understand that plagiarism is the use of someone else’s words, ideas, or images so that they appear to be my own.

I understand the seriousness of plagiarism, and I avoid it in all my writing.

I do not submit other writers’ writing.

I do not use copy and paste without setting off the material and indicating the source.

I do not confuse borrowed material with my own ideas.

I quote sources accurately, without taking them out of context.

I do not overuse source material, rely too heavily on one source, or use blanket citations.

I do not plunk quotations, dropping them into text without setting them up or explaining them.

My in-text citations match my bibliographic entries.

I avoid double-dipping, Falstaffing, and copyright violations.

I know how to organize and synthesize my findings.

I am comfortable with developing the first draft of my research paper.

I understand how to use source material in my writing, smoothly integrating quotations and documenting my sources.

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A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and Researching

Fourth Edition

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Pat Sebranek

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Checking Mechanics34 Capitalization Proper Nouns and Adjectives Capitalize all proper nouns and all proper adjectives (adjectives derived from proper nouns). The chart below provides a quick overview of capitalization rules. The pages following explain specific or special uses of capitalization.

Capitalization at a Glance Days of the week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sunday, Monday, Tuesday Months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June, July, August Holidays, holy days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thanksgiving, Easter, Hanukkah Periods, events in history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Middle Ages, World War I Special events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tate Memorial Dedication Ceremony Political parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Republican Party, Socialist Party Official documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the Declaration of Independence Trade names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscar Mayer hot dogs, Pontiac Firebird Formal epithets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alexander the Great Official titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mayor John Spitzer, Senator Feinstein Official state nicknames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the Badger State, the Aloha State Geographical names

Planets, heavenly bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth, Jupiter, the Milky Way Continents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Australia, South America Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ireland, Grenada, Sri Lanka States, provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Ohio, Utah, Nova Scotia Cities, towns, villages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . El Paso, Burlington, Wonewoc Streets, roads, highways . . . . . . . . . . Park Avenue, Route 66, Interstate 90 Sections of the United States and the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the Southwest, the Far East Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the Rocky Mountains, the Kalahari Desert Bodies of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the Nile River, Lake Superior, Bee Creek Public areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Central Park, Yellowstone National Park

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First Words Capitalize the first word in every sentence and the first word in a full-sentence direct quotation. (Also see 578.1.)

Attending the orientation for new students is a good idea. Max suggested, “Let’s take the guided tour of the campus first.”

Sentences in Parentheses Capitalize the first word in a sentence that is enclosed in parentheses if that sentence is not contained within another complete sentence.

The bookstore has the software. (Now all I need is the computer.)

Note: Do not capitalize a sentence that is enclosed in parentheses and is located in the middle of another sentence. (Also see 580.3.)

Your college will probably offer everything (this includes general access to a computer) that you’ll need for a successful year.

Sentences Following Colons Capitalize a complete sentence that follows a colon when that sentence is a formal statement, a quotation, or a sentence that you want to emphasize. (Also see 572.5.)

Sydney Harris had this to say about computers: “The real danger is not that computers will begin to think like people, but that people will begin to think like computers.”

Salutation and Complimentary Closing In a letter, capitalize the first and all major words of the salutation. Capitalize only the first word of the complimentary closing.

Dear Personnel Director: Sincerely yours,

Sections of the Country Words that indicate sections of the country are proper nouns and should be capitalized; words that simply indicate direction are not proper nouns.

Many businesses move to the South. (section of the country) They move south to cut fuel costs and other expenses. (direction)

Languages, Ethnic Groups, Nationalities, and Religions Capitalize languages, ethnic groups, nationalities, and religions.

African American Latino Navajo French Islam Nouns that refer to the Supreme Being and holy books are capitalized.

God Allah Jehovah the Koran Exodus the Bible

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Titles Capitalize the first word of a title, the last word, and every word in between except articles (a, an, the), short prepositions, to in an infinitive, and coordinating conjunctions. Follow this rule for titles of books, newspapers, magazines, poems, plays, songs, articles, films, works of art, and stories.

Going to Meet the Man Chicago Tribune “Nothing Gold Can Stay” “Jobs in the Cyber Arena” A Midsummer Night’s Dream The War of the Roses

Note: When citing titles in a bibliography, check the style manual you’ve been asked to follow. For example, in APA style, only the first word of a title is capitalized.

Organizations Capitalize the name of an organization or a team and its members.

American Indian Movement Democratic Party Tampa Bay Buccaneers Tucson Drama Club

Abbreviations Capitalize abbreviations of titles and organizations. (Some other abbreviations are also capitalized. See pages 595–596.) (Also see 561.2.)

M.D. Ph.D. NAACP C.E. B.C.E. GPA

Letters Capitalize letters used to indicate a form or shape.

U-turn I-beam S-curve V-shaped T-shirt

Words Used as Names Capitalize words like father, mother, uncle, senator, and professor when they are parts of titles that include a personal name or when they are substituted for proper nouns (especially in direct address). (Also see 568.3.)

Hello, Senator Feingold. (Senator is part of the name.) Our senator is an environmentalist. Who was your chemistry professor last quarter? I had Professor Williams for Chemistry 101.

Note: To test whether a word is being substituted for a proper noun, simply read the sentence with a proper noun in place of the word. If the proper noun fits in the sentence, the word being tested should be capitalized. Usually the word is not capitalized if it follows a possessive—my, his, our, your, and so on.

Did Dad (Brad) pack the stereo in the trailer? (Brad works in this sentence.)

Did your dad (Brad) pack the stereo in the trailer? (Brad does not work in this sentence; the word dad follows the possessive your.)

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Titles of Courses Words such as technology, history, and science are proper nouns when they are included in the titles of specific courses; they are common nouns when they name a field of study.

Who teaches Art History 202? (title of a specific course)

Professor Bunker loves teaching history. (a field of study)

Note: The words freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior are not capitalized unless they are part of an official title.

The seniors who maintained high GPAs were honored at the Mount Mary Senior Honors Banquet.

Internet and E-Mail The words Internet and World Wide Web are always capitalized because they are considered proper nouns. When your writing includes a web address (URL), capitalize any letters that the site’s owner does (on printed materials or on the site itself). Not only is it respectful to reprint a web address exactly as it appears elsewhere, but, in fact, some web addresses are case-sensitive and must be entered into a browser’s address bar exactly as presented.

When doing research on the Internet, be sure to record each site’s web address (URL) and each contact’s e-mail address.

Note: Some people include capital letters in their e-mail addresses to make certain features evident. Although e-mail addresses are not case-sensitive, repeat each letter in print just as its owner uses it.

Avoid Capitalization Errors Do not capitalize any of the following:

■ A prefix attached to a proper noun ■ Seasons of the year ■ Words used to indicate direction or position ■ Common nouns and titles that appear near, but are not part of,

a proper noun

Capitalize Do not Capitalize American . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . un-American January, February . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . winter, spring The South is quite conservative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turn south at the stop sign. Duluth City College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a Duluth college Chancellor John Bohm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John Bohm, our chancellor President Bush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the president of the United States Earth (the planet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . earthmover Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e-mail

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Capitalization A. Capitalization Practice For each sentence, write the correct form of any incorrectly capitalized or lowercased words. Use your own paper.

1. Vice president Joe Biden will speak in topeka, Kansas, on thursday.

2. What Jarrod meant to say is this: the dallas cowboys have enough talent to win the Super bowl.

3. The beautiful double rainbow in Yellowstone national park seemed like an act of god.

4. Does starbucks have a wireless internet connection?

5. The vehicle in question was driving North along interstate 55 before making a u-turn.

6. are you taking introduction to mass communication 101 with professor Williams next semester?

7. I’m going to the south to visit my brother in the peach state.

8. A story in the San Francisco chronicle quoted the Secretary of Agriculture saying, “we are concerned with the development of our farmland.”

9. Shoot me an e-mail if you want to go with me to the civil war reenactment.

10. The french restaurant serves an amazing aged Cheese platter.

B. Using Capitalization For each line of the following e-mail message, write the correct form of any incorrectly capitalized or lowercased words.

C. Capitalization Errors Write the correct form of any incorrectly capitalized or lowercased words.

Mechanics Exercises:

dear Dr. Cruz,

Thank You for letting me shadow you for a day at St. Vincent Hospital. I very much enjoyed observing the arthroscopic surgery and was impressed with the expertise of the hospital’s Staff! I hope we can meet up soon to discuss questions about my Human functional anatomy 410 course.

Best Wishes,

Kimbra Jenson

summer Vice President

prime minister the bible

David Cameron spanish

m.d.

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Visually Speaking

491

In research papers, it is commonly said, “You are commanded to borrow but forbidden to steal.” To borrow ideas while avoiding plagiarism (see pages 474–477), you must not only mention the sources you borrow from but also document them completely and accurately. You must follow to the last dot the documentation conventions for papers written in your area.

If you are composing a research paper in the humanities, your instructor will most likely require you to follow the conventions established in the style manual of the Modern Language Association (MLA). This chapter provides you with explanations and examples for citing sources in MLA format.

MLA Documentation Format31

In the image above, what elements of research are imagined?

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand MLA

documentation style.

▶ Understand and use MLA in-text citations.

▶ Understand and develop MLA works-cited entries.

▶ Understand and follow MLA format.

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 MLA Research Paper Guidelines

Questions and Answers

Is a separate title page required?

No. (unless your instructor requires one, in which case you would format it according to his or her instructions). On the first page of a research paper, type your name, your instructor’s name, the course name and number, and the date, one below the other. The title comes next, centered. Then simply begin the text on the next line.

Is the research paper double- spaced?

Yes. Double-space everything, even tables, captions, long quotations, or works-cited entries.

What about longer quotations?

Verse quotations of more than three lines should be indented one inch (ten spaces) and double-spaced. Do not add quotation marks. Each line of a poem or play begins a new line of the quotation; do not run the lines together. When you are quoting prose that needs more than four typed lines, indent each line of the quotation one inch (ten spaces) from the left margin and double-space it; do not add quotation marks. To quote two or more paragraphs—in addition to the one inch that you are already indenting for the lengthy quotation— you should indent the first line of each paragraph an extra quarter-inch (three spaces). However, if the first sentence quoted does not begin a paragraph in the source, do not include the additional indent. Indent only the first lines of the successive paragraphs.

Are page numbers required?

Yes. Pages should be numbered consecutively in the upper- right corner, one-half inch from the top and f lush with the right margin (one inch). Your last name should precede the page number, and no abbreviations or other symbols should be included.

Is an appendix required?

No. In MLA style, tables and illustrations are placed as close as possible to the related text.

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Is an abstract required?

No. An abstract, or summary of your research paper, is not an MLA requirement.

How wide should the margins be?

Top, bottom, left, and right margins should be one inch (except for page numbering). The first word in a paragraph should be indented one-half inch (f ive spaces). Longer quotations should be set off one inch (ten spaces) from the left margin (see page 492).

Are references placed in the text?

Yes. Indicate only page numbers parenthetically if you identify the author in your text. Give the author’s last name in a parenthetical reference if it is not mentioned in the text.

Is a list of sources used in the paper required?

Yes. Fu l l citations for a l l sources used (e.g., books, periodicals) are placed in an alphabetized list labeled “Works Cited” at the end of the paper. Whereas in-text parenthetical references generally indicate just the author’s last name and a page number for the source material, the works-cited entry provides full publication details.

What about headings?

MLA style does not specify a particular format for headings within the text; normally, headings are used only for separate sections of the paper (“Works Cited” or “Notes,” for example).

How do I incorporate reference markers if I submit my paper electronically?

Numbering paragraphs is common in electronic publications. Place the paragraph number in brackets. Follow with a space and begin the paragraph. (For other electronic formatting guidelines, check with your instructor.)

Any other special instructions?

Always ask whether your school, department, or instructor has special requirements that may take precedence over those listed here.

Web Link: For additional questions and answers about MLA format, see the MLA Q&A page at http://www.mla.org/handbook_faq.

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 Guidelines for In-Text Citations The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Seventh Edition (2009), suggests giving credit for your sources of information in the body of your research paper. One way to do so is by indicating the author and/or title in the text of your essay, and then putting a page reference in parentheses after the summary, paraphrase, or quotation, as needed. The simplest way to do so is to insert the appropriate information (usually the author and page number) in parentheses after the words or ideas taken from the source. To avoid disrupting your writing, place citations where a pause would naturally occur (usually at the end of a sentence but sometimes within a sentence, before internal punctuation such as a comma or semicolon). These in-text citations (often called “parenthetical references”) refer to sources listed on the “Works Cited” page at the end of your paper. (See pages 526–527 for a sample works-cited list.)

Use in-text citations. As you integrate citations into your paper, follow the guidelines below, referring to the sample citation as needed.

Sample In-Text Citation As James Cuno, director of the Harvard University Art Museums, points out, the

public, which subsidizes museums either directly through donations or indirectly

via their status as tax-free nonprofit organizations, expects them to “carry out their

duties professionally on its behalf” (164).

■ Make sure each in-text citation clearly points to an entry in your list of works cited. The identifying information provided (usually the author’s last name) must be the word or words by which the entry is alphabetized in that list.

■ Keep citations brief, and integrate them smoothly into your writing. ■ When paraphrasing or summarizing rather than quoting, make it clear where your

borrowing begins and ends. Use stylistic cues to distinguish the source’s thoughts (“Kalmbach points out . . . ,” “Some critics argue . . .”) from your own (“I believe . . . ,” “It seems obvious, however”). See pages 484–487 for more on integrating sources.

■ When using a shortened title of a work, begin with the word by which the work is alphabetized in your list of works cited (e.g., “Egyptian, Classical,” not “Middle Eastern Art,” for “Egyptian, Classical, and Middle Eastern Art”).

■ For inclusive page numbers larger than ninety-nine, give only the two digits of the second number (346–48, not 346–348).

■ When including a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence, place it before the end punctuation. (Citations for long, indented quotations are an exception. See pages 487, 492, 500, and 501.)

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Use sources without traditional authorship and/or pagination. Today many sources, especially electronic ones, have no stated authors and/or no pagination. For such sources, use these in-text citation strategies:

Source Without a Stated Author: In a signal phrase or in the parenthetical reference, identify the source as precisely as possible by indicating the sponsoring agency, the type of document, or the title (shortened in the parenthetical reference). See pages 497–498.

While the Brooklyn Museum may be best known for the recent controversy

over the Sensation exhibition, it does contain a strong collection of

contemporary if less controversial art, “ranging from representational to

abstract to conceptual” (“Contemporary Art”).

Source with No Pagination: If no pagination exists within the document, use paragraph numbers (with the abbreviation par.), if the document provides them. If the document includes neither page nor paragraph numbers, cite the entire work. Do not create your own numbering system.

The Museum’s collection of Art of the Americas includes extensive holdings of

works by the aboriginal peoples of North, Central, and South America, many

of these gathered by archaeologist Herbert Spinden during at least seven

expeditions between 1929 and 1950 (“Art of the Americas” par. 3).

Note: Because parenthetical notations are used to signal the end of an attribution, sources with no pagination or paragraph numbers offer a special challenge. When no parenthetical notation is possible, signal a shift back to your own discussion with a source-ref lective statement indicating your thinking about the source.

. . . indicated by his recording the audio tour of the exhibit, his supporting

the show financially, and his promoting Sensation at his website. As Welland’s

discussion of David Bowie’s participation indicates, the controversy over the

Brooklyn Museum of Art’s Sensation exhibit . . .

InSIght: ■ Stable pagination for many electronic resources is available when you use the “.pdf ”

rather than the “.html” version of the source. ■ For instruction on smoothly integrating source material into your paper, see pages

484–487. ■ For cautions about sources without identified authors, see pages 497, 498, 504, and

510.

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 Sample In-Text Citations The following entries illustrate the most common in-text citations.

 One Author: A Complete Work You do not need an in-text citation if you identify the author in your text. (See the first entry below.) However, you must give the author’s last name in an in-text citation if it is not mentioned in the text. (See the second entry.) When a source is listed in your works- cited page with an editor, a translator, a speaker, or an artist instead of the author, use that person’s name in your citation.

With Author in Text: (This is the preferred way of citing a complete work.)

In No Need for Hunger, Robert Spitzer recommends that the U.S. government

develop a new foreign policy to help Third World countries overcome poverty and

hunger.

Without Author in Text:

No Need for Hunger recommends that the U.S. government develop a new foreign

policy to help Third World countries overcome poverty and hunger (Spitzer).

Note : Do not offer page numbers when citing complete works, articles in alphabetized encyclopedias, one-page articles, and unpaginated sources.

 One Author: Part of a Work List the necessary page numbers in parentheses if you borrow words or ideas from a particular source. Leave a space between the author’s last name and the page reference. No abbreviation or punctuation is needed.

With Author in Text:

Bullough writes that genetic engineering was dubbed “eugenics” by a cousin of

Darwin’s, Sir Francis Galton, in 1885 (5).

Without Author in Text:

Genetic engineering was dubbed “eugenics” by a cousin of Darwin’s, Sir Francis

Galton, in 1885 (Bullough 5).

 A Work by Two or Three Authors Give the last names of every author in the same order that they appear in the works-cited section. (The correct order of the authors’ names can be found on the title page of the book.)

Students learned more than a full year’s Spanish in ten days using the complete

supermemory method (Ostrander and Schroeder 51).

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 A Work by Four or More Authors Give the first author’s last name as it appears in the works-cited section followed by et al. (meaning “and others”).

Communication on the job is more than talking; it is “inseparable from your total

behavior” (Culligan et al. 111).

Note: You may instead choose to list all of the authors’ last names.

 Two or More Works by the Same Author(s) In addition to the author’s last name(s) and page number(s), include a shortened version of the work’s title when you cite two or more works by the same author(s).

With Author in Text:

Wallerstein and Blakeslee claim that divorce creates an enduring identity for

children of the marriage (Unexpected Legacy 62).

Without Author in Text:

They are intensely lonely despite active social lives (Wallerstein and Blakeslee,

Second Chances 51).

Note: When including both author(s) and title in a parenthetical reference, separate them with a comma, as shown above, but do not put a comma between the title and the page number.

 Works by Authors with the Same Last Name When citing different sources by authors with the same last name, it is best to use the authors’ full names in the text to avoid confusion. However, if circumstances call for parenthetical references, add each author’s first initial. If first initials are the same, use each author’s full name.

Some critics think Titus Andronicus too abysmally melodramatic to be a work of

Shakespeare (A. Parker 73). Others suggest that Shakespeare meant it as black

comedy (D. Parker 486).

 A Work Authored by an Agency, a Committee, or an Organization If a book or other work was written by an organization such as an agency, a committee, or a task force, it is said to have a corporate author. (See also page 504.) If the corporate name is long, include it in the text (rather than in parentheses) to avoid disrupting the f low of your writing. After the full name has been used at least once, use a shortened form of the name (common abbreviations are acceptable) in subsequent references. For example, Task Force may be used for Task Force on Education for Economic Growth.

The thesis of the Task Force’s report is that economic success depends on our ability

to improve large-scale education and training as quickly as possible (113–14).

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 An Anonymous Work

When there is no author listed, give the title or a shortened version of the title as it appears in the works-cited section. (See page 504.)

Statistics indicate that drinking water can make up 20 percent of a person’s total

exposure to lead (Information 572).

 Two or More Works Included in One Citation

To cite multiple works within a single parenthetical reference, separate the references with a semicolon.

In Medieval Europe, Latin translations of the works of Rhazes, a Persian scholar,

were a primary source of medical knowledge (Albala 22; Lewis 266).

 A Series of Citations from a Single Work

If no confusion is possible, it is not necessary to name a source repeatedly when making multiple parenthetical references to that source in a single paragraph. If all references are to the same page, identify that page in a parenthetical note after the last reference. If the references are to different pages within the same work, you need identify the work only once, and then use a parenthetical note with page number alone for the subsequent references.

Domesticating science meant not only spreading scientific knowledge, but also

promoting it as a topic of public conversation (Heilbron 2). One way to enhance

its charm was by depicting cherubic putti as “angelic research assistants” in book

illustrations (5).

 A Work Referred to in Another Work

If you must cite an indirect source—that is, information from a source that is quoted from another source—use the abbreviation qtd. in (quoted in) before the indirect source in your reference.

Paton improved the conditions in Diepkloof (a prison) by “removing all the more

obvious aids to detention. The dormitories [were] open at night: the great barred

gate [was] gone” (qtd. in Callan xviii).

 A Work Without Page Numbers

If a work has no page numbers or paragraph numbers, treat it as you would a complete work. (See page 496.) This is commonly the case with electronic resources, for example. Do not count pages to create reference numbers of your own.

Antibiotics become ineffective against such organisms through two natural

processes: first, genetic mutation; and second, the subsequent transfer of this

mutated genetic material to other organisms (Davies par. 5).

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 A Work in an Anthology or a Collection When citing the entirety of a work that is part of an anthology or a collection, if it is identified by author in your list of works cited, treat the citation as you would for any other complete work. (See page 496.)

In “The Canadian Postmodern,” Linda Hutcheon offers a clear analysis of the self-

reflexive nature of contemporary Canadian fiction.

Similarly, if you are citing particular pages of such a work, follow the directions for citing part of a work. (See page 496.)

According to Hutcheon, “postmodernism seems to designate cultural practices that

are fundamentally self-reflexive, in other words, art that is self-consciously artifice”

(18).

(To format this sort of entry in your list of works cited, see pages 504–505.)

 An Item from a Reference Work An entry from a reference work such as an encyclopedia or a dictionary should be cited similarly to a work from an anthology or a collection (see above). For a dictionary definition, include the abbreviation def. followed by the particular entry designation.

This message becomes a juggernaut in the truest sense, a belief that “elicits blind

devotion or sacrifice” (“Juggernaut,” def. 1).

Note: While many such entries are identified only by title (as above), some reference works include an author’s name for each entry (as below). Others may identify the entry author by initials, with a list of full names elsewhere in the work.

The decisions of the International Court of Justice are “based on principles of

international law and cannot be appealed” (Pranger).

(See pages 506–507 for guidelines to formatting these entries in your works-cited list.)

 A Part of a Multivolume Work When citing only one volume of a multivolume work, if you identify the volume number in the works-cited list, there is no need to include it in your in-text citation. However, if you cite more than one volume of a work, each in-text reference must identify the appropriate volume. Give the volume number followed by page number, separated by a colon and a space.

“A human being asleep,” says Spengler, “. . . is leading only a plantlike existence” (2: 4).

When citing a whole volume, however, either identify the volume number in parentheses with the abbreviation vol. (using a comma to separate it from the author’s name) or use the full word volume in your text.

The land of Wisconsin has shaped its many inhabitants more significantly than

they ever shaped that land (Stephens, vol. 1).

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 A One-Page Work Cite a one-page work just as you would a complete work. (See page 496.)

As Samantha Adams argues in her editorial, it is time for NASA “to fully reevaluate

the Space Shuttle’s long-term viability for sending humans into space.”

 A Sacred Text or Famous Literary Work Sacred texts and famous literary works are published in many different editions. For that reason, it is helpful to identify sections, parts, chapters, and such instead of or in addition to page numbers. If using page numbers, list them first, followed by an abbreviation for the type of division and the division number.

The more important a person’s role in society—the more apparent power an

individual has—the more that person is a slave to the forces of history (Tolstoy

690; bk. 9, ch. 1).

Books of the Bible and other well-known literary works may be abbreviated, if no confusion is possible.

“A generation goes, and a generation comes, but the earth remains forever” (The

New Oxford Annotated Bible, Eccles. 1.4).

As Shakespeare’s famous Danish prince observes, “One may smile, and smile, and

be a villain” (Ham. 1.5.104).

 Quoting Prose To cite prose from fiction (novels, short stories), list more than the page number if the work is available in several editions. Give the page reference first, and then add a chapter, section, or book number in abbreviated form after a semicolon.

In The House of the Spirits, Isabel Allende describes Marcos, “dressed in mechanic’s

overalls, with huge racer’s goggles” (13; ch. 1).

When you are quoting any sort of prose that takes more than four typed lines, indent each line of the quotation one inch (ten spaces) and double-space it; do not add quotation marks. In this case, you put the parenthetical citation (the pages and chapter numbers) outside the end punctuation mark of the quotation itself.

Allende describes the flying machine that Marcos has assembled:

The contraption lay with its stomach on terra firma, heavy and sluggish

and looking more like a wounded duck than like one of those newfangled

airplanes they were starting to produce in the United States. There was

nothing in its appearance to suggest that it could move, much less take

flight across the snowy peaks. (12; ch. 1)

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format 501

 Quoting Verse Do not use page numbers when referencing classic verse plays and poems. Instead, cite them by division (act, scene, canto, book, part) and line, using Arabic numerals for the various divisions unless your instructor prefers Roman numerals. Use periods to separate the various numbers.

In the first act, Hamlet comments, “How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable, / Seem

to me all the uses of this world” (1.2.133–34).

Note: A slash, with a space on each side, shows where each new line of verse begins. If you are citing lines only, use the word line or lines in your first reference and numbers only in additional references.

At the beginning of the sestet in Robert Frost’s “Design,” the speaker asks this

pointed question: “What had that flower to do with being white, / The wayside

blue and innocent heal-all?” (lines 9–10).

Verse quotations of more than three lines should be indented one inch (ten spaces) and double-spaced. Do not add quotation marks. Each line of the poem or play begins a new line of the quotation; do not run the lines together. If a line or lines of poetry are dropped from the quotation, ellipses that extend the width of the stanza should be used to indicate the omission.

Bin Ramke’s poem “A Little Ovid Late in the Day” tells of reading by the last light of

a summer day:

[T]ales of incest, corruption,

any big, mythic vice

against the color of the sun,

the sweetness of the time of day—

I know the story,

it is the light I care about. (3–8)

 Listing an Internet Address The current (seventh edition) MLA Handbook discourages use of Internet addresses, or URLs, as they can so easily change with time. Ideally, you should refer to an entire website by its title, or to a specific article on a site by its author; then, include full reference information in your works-cited list. A URL should be listed in your document or in your works-cited list only when the reader probably cannot locate the source without it, or if your instructor requires it. If that is the case, enclose the address in brackets:

<www.thecollegewriter.com/4e>

Because most word processors will automatically convert the URL to a live hyperlink, you can either turn off the auto-formatting option on your computer or cancel the formatting as soon as it appears. If the instructor allows it, however, you may use live links in electronic versions of your text.

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Quick Guide MLA Works Cited

The works-cited section lists only the sources you have cited in your text. Begin your list on the page after the text and continue numbering each page. Format your works-cited pages using these guidelines and pages 526–527.

1. Type the page number in the upper-right corner, one-half inch from the top of the page, with your last name before it.

2. Center the title Works Cited (not in italics, in quotation marks, or underlined) one inch from the top; then double-space before the first entry.

3. Begin each entry f lush with the left margin. If the entry runs more than one line, indent additional lines one-half inch (five spaces) or use the hanging indent function on your computer.

4. End each element of the entry with a period. (Elements are separated by periods in most cases unless only a space is sufficient.) Use a single space after all punctuation.

5. Double-space lines within each entry and between entries.

6. List each entry alphabetically by the author’s last name. If there is no author, use the first word of the title (disregard A, An, or The as the first word). If there are multiple authors, alphabetize them according to which author is listed first in the publication.

7. The MLA Handbook, Seventh Edition, requires that each source be identified as print, web, or other (such as television or DVD). For print sources, this information is included after the publisher and date. For web publications, include Web. after the date of publication or updating of the site, and before the date you accessed the site.

8. A basic entry for a book would be as follows:

Black, Naomi. Virginia Woolf as Feminist. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2004. Print.

9. A basic entry for a journal or magazine would be as follows:

Stelmach, Kathryn. “From Text to Tableau: Ekphrastic Enchantment in Mrs.

Dalloway and To the Lighthouse.” Studies in the Novel 38.3 (Fall 2006):

304–26. Print.

10. A basic entry for an online source would be as follows. Note that the URL is included only if the reader probably cannot locate the source without it, or when your instructor requires it. (See page 512.)

Clarke, S. N. “Virginia Woolf (1882-1941): A Short Biography.” Virginia Woolf

Society of Great Britain. 2000. Web. 12 March 2008.

Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

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 Works-Cited Entries: Nonperiodical Print Publications

 Components The entries that follow illustrate the information needed to cite books, sections of a book, pamphlets, and government publications published in print format. The possible components of these entries are listed in order below:

1. Author’s name

2. Title of a part of the book (an article in the book or a foreword)

3. Title of the book, italicized

4. Name of editor or translator

5. Edition

6. Number of volume

7. Name of series

8. Place of publication, publisher, year of publication

9. Page numbers, if citation is to only a part (For page spans, use a hyphen; if clarity is maintained, for pages above 100 you may also drop a digit from the second number—for example, 234–41, 234–332.)

10. Medium of publication (Print)

Note : In general, if any of these components do not apply, they are not included in the works-cited entry. However, in the rare instance that a book does not state publication information, use the following abbreviations in place of information you cannot supply:

N.p. No place of publication given N.p. No publisher given N.d. No date of publication given N. pag. No pagination given

 Additional Guidelines

■ List only the city for the place of publication if the city is in the United States. For cities outside the United States, add an abbreviation for the country if necessary for clarity. If several cities are listed, give only the first.

■ Publishers’ names should be shortened by omitting articles (a, an, the), business abbreviations (Co., Inc.), and descriptive words (Books, Press). For publishing houses that consist of the names of more than one person, cite only the first of the surnames. Abbreviate University Press as UP. Also use standard abbreviations whenever possible.

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 A Book by One Author

Green, Christopher. Picasso: Architecture and Vertigo. New Haven: Yale UP, 2005.

Print.

 Two or More Books by the Same Author List the books alphabetically according to title. After the first entry, substitute three hyphens for the author’s name.

Dershowitz, Alan M. Rights from Wrongs. New York: Basic Books, 2005. Print.

- - - . Supreme Injustice: How the High Court Hijacked Election 2000.

Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001. Print.

 A Work by Two or Three Authors

Bystydzienski, Jill M., and Estelle P. Resnik. Women in Cross-Cultural Transitions.

Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1994. Print.

Note: List authors in title-page order. Reverse only the first author’s name.

 A Work by Four or More Authors

Schulte-Peevers, Andrea, et al. Germany. Victoria, Austral.: Lonely Planet, 2000.

Print.

 A Work Authored by an Agency, a Committee, or an Organization

Exxon Mobil Corporation. Great Plains 2000. Lincolnwood: Publications Intl., 2001.

Print.

 An Anonymous Book

Chase’s Calendar of Events 2002. Chicago: Contemporary, 2002. Print.

 A Single Work from an Anthology

Mitchell, Joseph. “The Bottom of the Harbor.” American Sea Writing. Ed. Peter Neill.

New York: Lib. of America, 2000. 584–608. Print.

 A Complete Anthology If you cite a complete anthology, begin the entry with the editor(s).

Neill, Peter, ed. American Sea Writing. New York: Lib. of America, 2000. Print.

Smith, Rochelle, and Sharon L. Jones, eds. The Prentice Hall Anthology of African

American Literature. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 2000. Print.

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format 505

 Two or More Works from an Anthology or a Collection To avoid unnecessar y repetition when citing two or more entries from a larger collection, you may cite the collection once with complete publication information (see Rothf ield, below). The individual entries (see Becker and Cuno, below) can then be cross-referenced by listing the author, title of the piece, editor of the collection, and page numbers.

Becker, Carol. “The Brooklyn Controversy: A View from the Bridge.” Rothfield

15–21.

Cuno, James. “Sensation and the Ethics of Funding Exhibitions.” Rothfield 162–170.

Rothfield, Lawrence, Ed. Unsettling Sensation: Arts-Policy Lessons from the Brooklyn

Museum of Art Controversy. Rutgers Series on the Public Life of the Arts. New

Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2001. Print.

 One Volume of a Multivolume Work

Cooke, Jacob Ernest, and Milton M. Klein, eds. North America in Colonial Times.

Vol. 2. New York: Scribner’s, 1998. Print.

Note : If you cite two or more volumes in a multivolume work, give the total number of volumes after each title. Offer specific references to volume and page numbers in the parenthetical reference in your text, like this: (3: 112–114).

Salzman, Jack, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West. Encyclopedia of

African-American Culture and History. 5 vols. New York: Simon, 1996. Print.

 An Introduction, a Preface, a Foreword, or an Afterword To cite the introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword of a book, list the author of the part first. Then identify the part by type, with no quotation marks or underlining, followed by the book title. Next, identify the author of the work, using the word by. (If the book’s author and the part’s author are the same person, give just the last name after by.) For a book that gives cover credit to an editor instead of an author, identify the editor as usual. List any page numbers for the part cited.

Barry, Anne. Afterword. Making Room for Students. By Celia Oyler. New York:

Teachers College, 1996. 139–140. Print.

Proulx, Annie. Introduction. Dance of the Happy Shades. By Alice Munro. Toronto:

Penguin Canada, 2005. Print.

Shaw, Randy. “Preface to the Paperback Edition.” Preface. The Activist’s Handbook:

A Primer. By Shaw. Berkley: U of California, 1996. ix–xiii. Print.

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 A Republished Book (Reprint) Give the original publication date after the title.

Atwood, Margaret. Surfacing. 1972. New York: Doubleday, 1998. Print.

Note: After the original publication facts, cite new material added: Introd. C. Becker.

 A Book with Multiple Publishers When a book lists more than one publisher (not just different offices of the same publisher), include all of them in the order given on the book’s title page, separated by a semicolon.

Wells, H. G. The Complete Short Stories of H. G. Wells. New York: St. Martin’s;

London: A. & C. Black, 1987. Print.

 Second and Subsequent Editions An edition refers to the particular publication you are citing, as in the third (3rd) edition.

Joss, Molly W. Looking Good in Presentations. 3rd ed. Scottsdale: Coriolis, 1999.

Print.

 An Edition with Author and Editor The abbreviation ed. also refers to the work of one or more persons that is prepared by another person, an editor.

Shakespeare, William. A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Ed. Jane Bachman.

Lincolnwood: NTC, 1994. Print.

 A Translation

Lebert, Stephan, and Norbert Lebert. My Father’s Keeper. Trans. Julian Evans.

Boston: Little, 2001. Print.

 An Article in a Familiar Reference Book It is not necessar y to give f ull publication information for familiar reference works (encyclopedias and dictionaries). For these titles, list only the edition (if available), the publication year, and the medium of publication you used. If an article is initialed, check the index of authors (in the opening section of each volume) for the author’s full name.

“Technical Education.” Encyclopedia Americana. 2001 ed. Print.

Lum, P. Andrea. “Computed Tomography.” World Book. 2000 ed. Print.

When citing a single definition of several listed, add the abbreviation Def. and the particular number or letter for that definition.

“Macaroni.” Def. 2b. The American Heritage College Dictionary. 4th ed. 2002. Print.

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format 507

 An Article in an Unfamiliar Reference Book For citations of lesser-known reference works, give full publication information, as for any other sort of book.

“S Corporation.” The Portable MBA Desk Reference. Ed. Paul A. Argenti. New York:

Wiley, 1994. Print.

 A Government Publication State the name of the government (country, state, and so on) followed by the name of the agency. Most U.S. federal publications are published by the Government Printing Office (GPO).

United States. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Outlook

Handbook 2006-2007. Indianapolis: Jist Works, 2006. Print.

When citing the Congressional Record, the date, page numbers, and medium you used are all that is required for that source.

Cong. Rec. 5 Feb. 2002: S311–15. Print.

 A Book in a Series Give the series name and number (if any), neither italicized nor in quotation marks, followed by a period, at the end of the listing, after the medium of publication.

Cudworth, Erika. Environment and Society. London; New York: Routledge, 2003.

Print. Routledge Introductions to Environment Ser.

 A Book with a Title Within Its Title If the title contains a title normally in quotation marks, keep the quotation marks and italicize the entire title.

Stuckey-French, Elizabeth. “The First Paper Girl in Red Oak, Iowa”

and Other Stories. New York: Doubleday, 2000. Print.

Note : If the title contains a title that is normally italicized, do not italicize that title in your entry:

Beckwith, Charles E. Twentieth Century Interpretations of A Tale of Two Cities: A

Collection of Critical Essays. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 1972. Print.

 A Sacred Text The Bible and other such sacred texts are treated as anonymous books. Documentation should read exactly as it is printed on the title page.

The Jerusalem Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1966. Print.

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 The Published Proceedings of a Conference The published proceedings of a conference should be treated as a book. However, if the title of the publication does not identify the conference by title, date, and location, add the appropriate information immediately after the title.

McIlwaine, Ia C., ed. Advances in Knowledge Organization. Vol. 9.

Proc. of Eighth Intl. ISKO Conf., 13–16 July 2004, London. Wurzburg, Ger.:

Ergon-Verlag, 2004. Print.

To cite a particular presentation from the published proceedings of a conference, treat it as a work in an anthology.

Vizine-Goetz, Diane, and Julianne Bea. “Using Literary Warrant to Define a Version

of the DDC for Automated Classification Services.” Advances in Knowledge

Organization. Ed. Ia C. McIlwaine. Vol. 9. Proc. of Eighth Intl. ISKO Conf., 13–16

July 2004, London. Wurzburg, Ger.: Ergon-Verlag, 2004. Print.

 A Published Dissertation An entry for a published dissertation contains the same information as a book entry, with a few added details. Add the abbreviation Diss. and the degree-granting institution before the publication facts and medium.

Jansen, James Richard. Images of Dostoevsky in German Literary

Expressionism. Diss. U of Utah, 2003. Ann Arbor: UMI, 2003. Print.

 An Unpublished Dissertation The entry for an unpublished dissertation lists author, title in quotation marks, degree- granting institution, year of acceptance, and medium. (For a master’s thesis, use MA thesis or MS thesis rather than Diss.)

Vaidhyanathan, Siva. “Unoriginal Sins: Copyright and American Culture.” Diss. U

Texas, 1999. Print.

 A Pamphlet, Manual, or Other Workplace Document Treat any such publication as you would a book.

Grayson, George W. The North American Free Trade Agreement. New York: Foreign

Policy Assn., 1993. Print.

If publication information is missing, list the country of publication in brackets if known. Use n.p. (no place) if the country or the publisher is unknown and n.d. if the date is unknown, just as you would for a book.

Pedestrian Safety. [United States]: n.p., n.d. Print.

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format 509

 Works-Cited Entries: Print Periodical Articles

 Possible Components, in Order

1. Author’s name, last name first

2. Title of article, in quotation marks and headline style capitalization

3. Name of periodical, italicized

4. Series number or name, if relevant (not preceded by period or comma)

5. Volume number (for a scholarly journal)

6. Issue number, separated from volume with a period but no space

7. Date of publication (abbreviate all months but May, June, July)

8. Page numbers, preceded by a colon, without “p.” or “pp.” (For articles continued nonconsecutively, add a plus sign after the first page number.)

9. Medium of publication (Print)

10. Supplementary information as needed

Note: Any components that do not apply are not listed.

 An Article in a Weekly or Biweekly Magazine List the author (if identified), article title (in quotation marks), publication title (italicized), full date of publication, and page numbers for the article. Do not include volume and issue numbers.

Green, Andy. “U2, Neil Young Films Rock Sundance.” Rolling Stone 7 Feb. 2008: 20.

Print.

 An Article in a Monthly or Bimonthly Magazine As for a weekly or biweekly magazine, list the author (if identified), article title (in quotation marks), and publication title (italicized). Then identify the month(s) and year of the issue, followed by page numbers for the article. Do not give volume and issue numbers.

Mead, Walter Russell. “Born Again.” Atlantic Monthly March 2008: 21–24. Print.

 An Article in a Scholarly Journal Paginated by Issue List the volume number immediately after the journal title, followed by a period and the issue number, and then the year of publication (in parentheses). End with the page numbers of the article followed by the medium of publication (Print.).

Sanchez, Melissa E. “Seduction and Service in The Tempest.” Studies in

Philology 105.1 (Winter 2008): 50–82. Print.

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 An Article in a Scholarly Journal with Continuous Pagination An article in a scholarly journal with continuous pagination uses the same citation format, with volume, issue, month or season, and inclusive page numbers.

Frosch, Thomas R. “The Missing Child in A Midsummer Night’s Dream.” American

Imago 64.2 (Winter 2007): 485–511. Print.

 An Unsigned Article in a Periodical If no author is identified for an article, list the entry alphabetically by title among your works cited (ignoring any initial A, An, or The).

“Feeding the Hungry.” Economist. 371.8374 (2004): 74. Print.

 A Printed Interview Begin with the name of the person interviewed if that’s who you are quoting.

Cantwell, Maria. “The New Technocrat.” By Erika Rasmusson. Working Woman Apr.

2001: 20–21. Print.

Note: If the interview is untitled, the word Interview (no italics) and a period follow the interviewee’s name.

 A Newspaper Article

Segal, Jeff, and Lauren Silva. “Case of Art Imitating Life?” Wall Street Journal 3

March 2008, Eastern ed.: C9. Print.

Note : Cite the edition of a major daily newspaper (if given) after the date (1 May 1995, Midwest ed.: 1). If a local paper’s name does not include the city of publication, add it in brackets (not italicized) after the name.

To cite an article in a lettered section of the newspaper, list the section and the page number. (For example, A4 would refer to page 4 in section A of the newspaper.) If the sections are numbered, however, use a comma after the year (or the edition); then indicate the section and follow it with a colon, the page number (sec. 1: 20), and the medium of publication you used.

An unsigned newspaper article follows the same format:

“Bombs—Real and Threatened—Keep Northern Ireland Edgy.” Chicago Tribune 6

Dec. 2001, sec. 1: 20. Print.

 A Newspaper Editorial or Letter to the Editor If an article is an unsigned editorial, put Editorial (no italics) and a period after the title.

“Hospital Power.” Editorial. Bangor Daily News 14 Sept. 2004: A6. Print.

To identify a letter to the editor, put Letter (no italics) and a period after the author’s name.

Sory, Forrest. Letter. Discover July 2001: 10. Print.

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format 511

 A Review Begin with the author (if identified) and title of the review. Use the notation Rev. of between the title of the review and that of the original work. Identify the author of the original work with the word by. Then follow with publication data for the review.

Dillon, Brian. “Onion Pilfering.” Rev. of Divisadero by Michael Ondaatje. London

Review of Books 13 Dec. 2007: 19-20. Print.

Note: If you cite the review of a work by an editor, translator, or director, use ed., trans., or dir., instead of by.

 An Abstract An abstract is a summary of a work. To cite an abstract, first give the publication information for the original work (if any); then list the publication information for the abstract itself. Add the term Abstract and a period between these if the journal title does not include that word. If the journal identifies abstracts by item number, include the word item followed by the number. (Add the section identifier [A, B, or C] for those volumes of Dissertation Abstracts [DA] and Dissertation Abstracts International [DAI] that have one.) If no item number exists, list the page number(s).

Faber, A. J. “Examining Remarried Couples Through a Bowenian Family System

Lens.” Journal of Divorce and Remarriage 40.4 (2004): 121–33. Social Work

Abstracts 40 (2004): item 1298. Print.

 An Article with a Title or Quotation Within Its Title

Morgenstern, Joe. “Sleeper of the Year: In the Bedroom Is Rich Tale of Tragic Love.”

Wall Street Journal 23 Nov. 2001: W1. Print.

Note: Use single quotation marks around the shorter title if it is a title normally punctuated with quotation marks.

 An Article Reprinted in a Loose-Leaf Collection The entry begins with original publication information, including the medium of publication, and ends with the name of the loose-leaf volume (Youth), editor, volume number, publication information including name of the information service (SIRS), and the article number. In the example below, the plus sign indicates continuing but nonconsecutive pages.

O’Connell, Loraine. “Busy Teens Feel the Beep.” Orlando Sentinel 7 Jan. 1993: E1+.

Print. Youth. Ed. Eleanor Goldstein. Vol. 4. Boca Raton: SIRS, 1993. Art. 41.

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 Works-Cited Entries: Online Sources  Components Citations for online sources generally follow the strategies used for print sources, including the medium of publication (Web). After the author’s name and title of the work (either italicized or in quotes, depending on the type of work), include the title of the overall website in italics, and additional information as described below. Because URLs can change, the URL should be provided only if the reader probably cannot locate the source without it, or if your instructor requires it.

1. Author’s name

2. Title of the article or work, italicized or in quotation marks

3. Title of the overall website, italicized (if different from item 2)

4. Version or edition used

5. Publisher or sponsor of the site; if not available, use N.p.

6. Date of publication, with day, month, and year if available; if nothing is available, use n.d.

7. Medium of publication (Web)

8. Date of access (day, month, and year)

 A Site with a URL If you must include a URL to provide guidance to a site (or because your instructor requires URLs), give it after the date of access, a period, and a space. Enclose it in angle brackets and follow it with a period.

MacLeod, Donald. “Shake-Up for Academic Publishing.” Guardian Unlimited.

Guardian News and Media Ltd., 10 Nov. 2008. Web. 6 Jan. 2011. <http://

www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/>.

If the URL must be divided between two lines, break it only after a single or double slash. Do not add a hyphen. If possible, include the complete address, including http:// for the work you are citing.

“Fort Frederica.” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, n.d. Web.

27 Feb. 2011. <http://home.nps.gov/fofr/forteachers/

curriculummaterials.htm>.

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format 513

 A Nonperiodical Publication Most items online are not posted on a regular schedule; they are nonperiodical. Business pages, blog entries, PDF documents, online books, audio or video posts, and a host of other postings are nonperiodical publications. This includes most websites sponsored by magazines and newspapers. Such items can be identified following the guidelines on the previous page. (For additional guidelines regarding scholarly journals or periodical publications in an online database, see page 515.)

 Items Existing Only Online Many publications exist only in online form. Because such publications can move unexpectedly, it is important to include enough information for your reader to locate them again regardless of their new location.

A Typical Online Item

Booth, Philip. “Robert Frost’s Prime Directive.” Poets.org. Academy of American

Poets, n.d. Web. 1 Oct. 2011.

An Online Item, No Author Identified

Begin with the title of the work, in quotation marks or italics, as appropriate. Alphabetize this entry by the first significant word of the title (“NetDay” in this case).

“NetDay AmeriCorps Bridge Program 2001-2003.” NetDay. Project Tomorrow, n.d.

Web. 25 Nov. 2011.

A Home Page

If a nonperiodical publication has no title, identify it with a descriptor such as Home page, Introduction, or Online posting (using no italics or quotation marks). You may add the name of the publication’s creator or editor after the overall site title, if appropriate.

Wheaton, Wil. Home page. Wil Wheaton dot Net. N.p., 31 May 2006. Web. 19 Mar.

2011.

An Online Item with a Compiler, an Editor, or a Translator

When alphabetizing an entry by its compiler, editor, or translator, treat that person’s name as usual, followed by an abbreviation for her or his role. If an author is identified, however, the compiler, editor, or translator follows the item title, with the abbreviation for the role preceding the compiler, editor, or translator’s name.

Webster, Michael, comp. “Books and Articles Cited in ‘Notes on the Writings of E.

E. Cummings.’” Spring. E. E. Cummings Society, n.d. 4 Oct. 2011.

Lao-tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. J. Legge. Internet Sacred Text Archive. John Bruno

Hare, n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.

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 An Entry in an Online Reference Work Unless the author of the entry is identified, begin with the entry name in quotation marks. Follow with the usual online publication information.

“Eakins, Thomas.” Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008.

Web. 26 Sept. 2008.

 An Online Poem List the poet’s name, the title of the poem, and any print publication information before the electronic publication details.

Nemerov, Howard. “Found Poem.” War Stories. U. of Chicago Press: 1987. Poets.org.

Web. 5 Oct. 2007.

 An Online Transcript of a Broadcast Give the original publication information for the broadcast. Following the medium of publication, add Transcript, followed by a period.

Lehrer, Jim. “Character Above All.” Online NewsHour. Natl Public Radio, 29 May

1996. PBS.org. Web. Transcript. 23 Apr. 2007.

 An Online Government Publication As with a governmental publication in print, begin with the name of the government (country, state, and so on) followed by the name of the agency. After the publication title, add the electronic publication information.

United States. Dept. of Labor. Office of Disability Employment Policy. Emergency

Preparedness for People with Disabilities. Apr. 2004. Disability Employment

Agency. Web. 12 Sept. 2008.

 Items Including Print Publication Information In general, follow the format for printed books. Include publication information for the original print version if available. Follow the date of publication with the electronic information, including the title of the site or database, sponsor, date of electronic posting (or n.d. if not available), medium of publication (Web.), and your date of access.

Simon Julian L. The Ultimate Resource II: People, Materials, and Environment. College

Park: U of Maryland, 1996. U of Maryland Libraries. Web. 9 Apr. 2009.

When citing part of an online book (such as the foreword) follow the example on page 505, but end with the online source, the term Web, and the date of access.

Taylor, Bayard. Preface. Faust. Trans. Bayard Taylor. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1883.

iii-xvii. Google Book Search. Web. 7 March 2009.

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 Items Including Nonprint Publication Information For online postings of photographs, videos, sound recordings, works of art, and so on, follow the examples on pages 516–518. In place of the original medium of publication, however, include the title of the database or website (italicized), followed by the medium (Web.) and the date of access, as for other online entries.

 A Scholarly Journal Many scholarly journals are published only on the web, with no print version. For such publications, follow the basic guidelines given for print periodicals, though conclude with Web instead of Print, followed by your date of access. Also, if no page numbers are given, or if each item in the journal is numbered separately, replace the normal page notation with n. pag.

“Wired Style: Principles of English Usage in the Digital Age. Wired.” Wired Digital

Inc., 1994. Web. 5 Nov. 2008.

 A Periodical Publication in an Online Database Articles from different sources may be incorporated into an online database. To cite an article from a database, begin your citation with the usual information for citing print periodicals, but drop the medium of original publication (Print). Instead, include the title of the database (italicized), the medium of publication (Web), and the date of access.

Davis, Jerome. “Massacre in Kiev.” Washington Post 29 Nov. 1999, final ed.: C12.

ProQuest. Web. 30 Nov. 2008.

An Artwork

Goya, Francisco de. Saturn Devouring His Children. 1819-1823. Museo Nacional del

Prado, Madrid. Museodelprado.es. Web. 13 Dec. 2008.

A Photograph

Brumfield, William Craft. Church of Saint Nicholas Mokryi. 1996. Prints and

Photographs Div., Lib. of Cong. Brumfield Photograph Collection. Web. 9 May

2009.

An Audio Recording

“Gildy Arrives in Summerfield.” The Great Gildersleeve. NBC. 31 Aug. 1941.

EThomsen.com. Web. 13 Apr. 2009.

A Video

Sita Sings the Blues. Prod. Nina Paley. 2008. Internet Archive. Web. 5 June 2008.

An Unpublished Manuscript

“The Work-for-All Plan.” 1933. Mildred Hicks Papers. Manuscript, Archives, and

Rare Book Lib., Emory U. Online Manuscript Resources in Southern Women’s

History. Web. 31 Jan. 2009.

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 Works-Cited Entries: Other Sources (Primary, Personal, and Multimedia)

The following examples of works-cited entries illustrate how to cite sources such as television or radio programs, films, live performances, works of art, and other miscellaneous nonprint sources.

 A Periodically Published Database on CD-ROM or DVD-ROM Citations for materials published on CD-ROM or DVD-ROM are similar to those for print sources, with these added considerations: (1) The contents of a work may vary from one medium to another; therefore, the citation should always identify the medium. (2) The publisher and vendor of the publication may be different, in which case both must be identified. (3) Because of periodic updates, multiple versions of the same database may exist, which calls for citation if possible of both the date of the document cited and the date of the database itself.

Ackley, Patricia. “Jobs of the Twenty-First Century.” New Rochelle

Informer 15 (Apr. 1994): A4. New Rochelle Informer Ondisc. Oct. 1994.

CD-ROM.

Baker, Anthony. The New Earth Science. Cincinnati: Freeman’s P, 1991. New Media

Inc., 2004. DVD-ROM.

 Reference Work on CD-ROM If you use an encyclopedia or other reference book recorded on CD-ROM, use the form below. If available, include publication information for the printed source.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 3rd ed. Boston:

Houghton-Mifflin, 1992. Cambridge, MA: Softkey Intl., 1994. CD-ROM.

 A Television or Radio Program Include the medium (Television or Radio) at the end of the citation, followed by a period.

“U.S. Health Care Gets Boost from Charity.” 60 Minutes. CBS. WBBM, Chicago. 28

Feb. 2008. Television.

 A Film The director, distributor, and year of release follow the title. Other information may be included if pertinent. End with the medium, in this case Film, followed by a period.

Atonement. Dir. Joe Wright. Perf. James McAvoy, Keira Knightley. Universal

Pictures, 2007. Film.

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 A Video Recording or an Audio Recording Cite a filmstrip, slide program, videocassette, or DVD as you do a film; include the medium of publication last, followed by a period.

Monet: Shadow & Light. Devine Productions, 1999. Videocassette.

If you are citing a specific song on a musical recording, place its title in quotation marks before the title of the recording.

Bernstein, Leonard. “Maria.” West Side Story. Columbia, 1995. CD.

 A Performance Treat this similarly to a film, adding the location and date of the performance.

Chanticleer: An Orchestra of Voices. Young Auditorium, Whitewater, Wisc. 23 Feb.

2003. Performance.

 An Artwork on Display

Titian. The Entombment. N.d. Painting. Louvre, Paris.

 A Letter or Memo Received by the Author (You) For an unpublished letter or memo, include the form of the material after the date: TS for a typescript or printout, and MS for a work written by hand.

Thomas, Bob. Letter to the author. 10 Jan. 2008. TS.

 An Interview by the Author (You)

Brooks, Sarah. Personal interview. 15 Oct. 2008.

 A Cartoon or Comic Strip (in Print)

Luckovich, Mike. “The Drawing Board.” Cartoon. Time 17 Sept. 2001: 18. Print.

 An Advertisement (in Print) List the subject of the advertisement (product, company, organization, or such), followed by Advertisement and a period. Then give the usual publication information.

Vaio Professional Notebooks. Advertisement. Campus Technology Oct. 2004: 45. Print.

 A Lecture, a Speech, an Address, or a Reading Provide the speaker’s name, the title of the presentation (if known) in quotation marks, the meeting and the sponsoring organization, the location, and the date. End with an appropriate descriptive label such as Address, Lecture, or Reading.

Annan, Kofi. “Acceptance of Nobel Peace Prize.” Oslo City Hall, Oslo, Norw. 10 Dec.

2001. Speech.

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 A Legal or Historical Document If your paper requires a number of legal citations, the MLA advises consulting the most recent edition of The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation (Cambridge: Harvard Law Rev. Assn.: Print). If you are providing only a few such citations, the MLA provides that the titles of laws, acts, and similar documents should appear in regular type (not italicized or enclosed in quotation marks), both within the text and in the list of works cited. The titles are abbreviated, and works are cited by sections, with years included if relevant. End your citation with the medium of publication followed by a period.

7 USC. Sec. 308a. 1928. Print.

Do-Not-Call Implementation Act. Pub. L. 108-10. Stat. 117-557. 11 Mar. 2003. Print.

Abbreviate the names of law cases (spelling out the first important word of each party’s name). Do not italicize the name in your works-cited list (although it should be italicized within the body of your paper). Follow with the case number or volume, inclusive page or reference numbers, the name of the court, the date (or year) of the decision, the medium consulted, and the date of access for a website.

Missouri v. Seibert. 02-1371. Supreme Court of the U.S. 28 June 2004. FindLaw.com.

Web. 4 June 2009.

 A Map or Chart Follow the format for an anonymous book, adding Map or Chart (without italics), followed by a period, the city and publisher, date, and the medium of publication.

Wisconsin Territory. Map. Madison: Wisconsin Trails, 1988. Print.

 Sample MLA Paper Stevie Jeung wrote the following research paper for an American Studies course focusing on crime and punishment in America. The paper examines cultural perceptions of a condemned prisoner’s last meal. Because this paper focuses on a humanities topic, Stevie used MLA style for format and documentation. Strictly speaking, MLA format does not require or even recommend a title page or an outline. To see samples of these, go to www. thecollegewriter.com/4e. (For more on outlines, you can also see pages 48–53.) You can use Stevie’s paper in three ways:

1. To study how a well-written, major research paper develops careful thinking, builds a discussion, and orders supporting points and evidence.

2. To examine how source summaries, paraphrases, and quotations are carefully integrated into the writer’s discussion to advance her thinking— a full-length example of the strategies addressed on pages 484–487.

3. To see in detail the format and documentation practices of MLA style, practices that allow the writer to share a professional-looking paper that fairly respects sources used.

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Sample Paper: Format, In-Text Citation, and Works-Cited List Note that MLA format requires that the paper be double-spaced throughout. That formatting is shown in the full version of the paper, which you can find at the website www.thecollegewriter.com/4e.

Jeung 1

Stevie Jeung

Professor Sasha Abramsky

American Studies 101D

17 February 2008

“I Did Not Get My Spaghetti-O’s”:

Death Row Consumption in the Popular Media

Jesus Christ: Roast lamb, matzo, wine; around AD 30. Perry Smith and

Richard Hickock: Identical meals of shrimp, French fries, garlic bread, ice cream

and strawberries with whipped cream; 1965. Timothy McVeigh: Two pints of

Ben & Jerry’s mint chocolate chip ice cream: 2001. Tony Soprano: Holsten’s

onion rings; 2007. Karl Chamberlein: final meal yet to be consumed; 15 days

from now.

While executions historically demand a certain degree of morbid curiosity,

the last meals of the condemned seem to stimulate heightened interest. Indeed,

a prisoner’s final feast has almost become an event in its own right, not only for

the prisoner, but for the prison staff and the public. Websites, novels, movies,

television shows, newspapers, and even cookbooks report, dissect, criticize, and

speculate regarding last meals real and imagined. When confronted with the

ultimate consumption of dying people in so many areas of our popular media,

the truth becomes alarmingly clear: This is odd behavior. There must be some

reason that we institutionally allow our most hated and feared prisoners to

choose and enjoy their final meal before we execute them, and there must be

some reason that we like to watch and reproduce the event in popular culture.

The last meal appears in almost every major arena of public entertainment.

In The Green Mile, a motion picture based on Stephen King’s novel of the same

The heading supplies identifying details.

The title (centered) indicates the paper’s topic and theme.

Because the film title is identified in the sentence, an in-text citation isn’t needed.

The analysis focuses on specific examples in film and television.

The writer opens with a chronological catalog of executed people and last suppers.

The intro zeros in on the topic, focuses on what is odd or difficult to explain, and announces a search for explanations.

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Documentation and Format Styles520

name, protagonist John Coffey is wrongfully executed in a heartbreaking,

dramatic scene, but not before careful thought about his last meal: “Meatloaf be

nice. Mashed taters with gravy. Okra, maybe. I’s not picky.” Prisoners are also

served their last meals on the small screen. Take, for example, FOX’s network

TV show, Prison Break, in which Lincoln Burrows is served his last blueberry

pancakes (“Sleight of Hand”). In fact, on an episode of The Simpsons, a staple

of American television, Homer eats Hans Moleman’s last meal of lobster tail

and raspberry tort just before Hans is executed, protesting, “But he ate my last

meal!” (“Springfield Connection”). Clearly, this animated man did not think it

right to be executed without enjoying his final choice of cuisine. Of course, his

expression of outrage is followed by, “Are you really allowed to execute people

in local jail?” reminding us that The Simpsons, however rich with American

icons, is not real. Regardless of actual death row ceremony, the Americans

who produce and consume these works of fiction expect that a special meal

accompanies execution.

Compulsory inclusion of a last meal in fictional executions is one thing,

but our fascination does not stop there. Where convicts are executed, the state

documents and even publishes details of the last meal and last words before they

administer capital punishment. Until recently, Texas, the number one execution

state, posted prisoners’ last meals on their Justice Department’s website (“Death

Row”). They discontinued this practice for unclear reasons, but the archived

lists from 2003 and earlier are still readily available, and the department

continues to publish names, execution dates, case records, and even pictures

of the dead and soon-to-be-dead (like Karl Chamberlain, mentioned above).

Oklahoma, ranked third among execution states, takes a more voyeuristic

approach: “the local newspaper [prints] a blow-by-blow account. Time of

injection. Facial expressions. Final meal requests” (“Artist”). While this might

seems like a gruesome practice on the state’s part, the public does not shy away.

In fact, commercial reproduction of this information proves that it’s not just

reporting; it’s entertainment.

Jeung 2

A direct quotation is placed within quotation marks.

The analysis turns to real executions and state practices.

An in-text citation uses a shortened title and no page number for a government webpage.

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It is evident not only that people read this stuff, but that they actually use

available execution and last-meal information to create and market their own

masterpieces of morbid exposition. It becomes at once blatantly, amusingly, and

disgustingly clear when you stumble across websites like Last Suppers: Famous

Final Meals from Death Row, Meals to Die For, and Dead Man Eating, which

faithfully posts the last meal (along with “the skinny” on the day’s events and

case details) of every person executed in the United States since 2002. The most

shocking part is that the Dead Man Eating website also sells t-shirts, coffee

mugs, and even thong underwear, all of which read “Dead Man Eating: looking

for a killer meal?” and feature a crude drawing of a dead man hanging with

an ice cream cone in his hand. A more tasteful, if just as morbid, strategy is to

publish a “last meal” cookbook or coffee table book. A quick search for “last

meal” on Amazon.com yields at least four such books (along with Snoop Dogg’s

album entitled Tha Last Meal). According to its description, one of the books,

Last Suppers: Famous Final Meals from Death Row, both lists the gritty details

of last meals and uses the public’s “appetite” for this last-minute courtesy to

comment on the death penalty. The book Meals to Die For comes from Brian D.

Price, a former inmate who personally cooked eleven years’ worth of final meals

for Texas death row inmates. It reveals recipes, pictures, and even hand-written

last-meal requests he received during his incarceration. The last things that our

allegedly deadliest murderers eat, then, are not only published for the public, but

published again with extra details for sale to the public. This doubly-consuming

public just eats this stuff up.

The more closely we look at it, the more bizarre this cycle of consumption

and death appears: a man kills, he eats, we kill him, and then we eat it up. Where

does it really begin, though? The “last meal” has a symbolic and ritualistic

significance since, well, Jesus and the Last Supper (Peck). At some point,

between Jesus and today’s American mega-prisons, we began to recognize the

last meal as a ritual of institutionalized execution.

Jeung 3

Free-web resources (fitting the cultural focus of the essay) function as primary sources showing society’s fascination with last meals. The sources are all clearly identified.

The analysis draws conclusions from the examples discussed.

With a question, the writer explores possible origins of the phenomenon, and offers a chronological survey.

The writer explorers the presence of “last supper” interest on the web, using concrete details and examples.

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Since the early nineteenth century, Americans have been fascinated with

not just execution, but the ritual of a condemned criminal’s last day. A large

crowd would turn up to hear the death warrant, sermon, and last words before a

hood was slipped over the offender’s head and he or she was hanged by the neck.

Still more people read the details of the execution as it was published, and “if the

offender could not or would not utter any memorable last words, the publisher

had no compunction against compositing them” (Atwell 8). The 1840s brought

the American death penalty’s first decline in a trend of fluctuating popularity

that would continue to the present day, but wherever there was a spectacle, there

was an audience. As the death penalty remained popular in the South, so did

reporting the last days of convicts in gross detail.

Each of the states that employ capital punishment uses its own set of

rules and procedures. Some states enforce a price limit, while Texas limits a

last meal to the things accessible by the regular prison kitchen staff. In 1995,

the Federal Government administered its first execution since 1969. Timothy

McVeigh’s execution prompted development of a 56-page “Execution Protocol,”

“meant to ensure that all executions are carried out ‘in an efficient and humane

manner.’” This document clearly outlines a last meal choice as a scheduled

step in the execution process: “At least seven days prior to the execution, the

warden or designee will contact the condemned individual to arrange for his/

her last meal,” and “The condemned individual will be served a final meal

at a time determined by the warden” between twelve and three hours prior

to the execution (qtd. in Fritsch). In Texas, the meal would be ready at 3:45

p.m. and delivered at 4 p.m., two hours before lethal injection. This last tray of

food, which would become very public following the execution, was covered

in paper “for privacy” (Price). Although an inmate could request anything, he

or she often received something different: “The local newspaper would always

say they got 24 tacos and 12 enchiladas, but they would actually get four tacos

and two enchiladas” (“Confessions”). After all of this procedure, the report

sensationalizes the last meal, much as early publications sensationalized the last

words.

Jeung 4

The analysis compares and contrasts the capital- punishment practices of different government bodies (federal, states).

The citation indicates that the source was quoted in another source.

As the analysis deepens, Stevie refers to scholarly sources, using direct quotation when appropriate and in-text citations noting author and page number.

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format 523

So why does the state even allow a last meal? Bob Greene argues that

“inviting” prisoners to choose a last meal is “hypocritical and insulting to

the memory of the victims” because, he poignantly argues, murderers take

that foresight and choice from their victims. Perhaps, Tony Karon of TIME

suggests, the prisoners accept a last bit of freedom and humanity to make up

for the “grim act of violence of the state” that is about to occur. Especially

considering that prisoners don’t always get what they ask for, this seems unlikely.

Daniel LaChance notices that although execution practices have historically

moved toward anonymity and bureaucracy, the last meal and final speech have

incongruently been sustained. His recent paper, “Last Words, Last Meals, and

Last Stands: Agency and Individuality in the Modern Execution Process,” argues

that in giving the prisoners choice in their final meals and words, the state

portrays them as autonomous agents who have chosen their deeds and accepted

their fates. In other words, the prison system denies a prisoner individuality

until his or her last day of life in order to feel righteousness in executing him

or her (LacChance). As Sasha Abramsky points out, in the midst of a vengeful

prison system this makes perfect sense. It is much more satisfying to exact

revenge on a person than on a number. In fact, despite the moves toward more

humane and less painful execution, the state can treat mentally ill patients with

antipsychotics so that they’re “sane enough to be executed” (“Confessions”).

Clearly, the “ideal candidate” is an irredeemable individual, sane enough both

to feel and participate in the death. In other words, if candidates can choose the

last thing they eat, they must have chosen to murder, in which case they deserve

to die. Furthermore, resemblance to the biblical Last Supper might justify

vengeful treatment in the name of religion, especially for prison staff like Oscar

Dees, who believed that God intended him to punish criminals. This powerful,

righteous moral logic is published and extended to the public, creating a sense of

justice that maintains support for the death penalty. As in Cool Hand Luke, this

public spectacle of punishment and revenge is a self-serving institution of the

prison system itself.

Jeung 5

The writer analyzes the moral psychology of the execution rituals, including the last meal.

9 A “why” question pushes forward the analysis; to answer the question, Stevie fluently uses a variety of different sources.

Disagreeing with one source’s explanation, the writer turns to another source.

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Documentation and Format Styles524

The public, however, has its own incentives for gobbling it all up, so to

speak. Revenge is probably one of them, as is pure, unabashed voyeurism.

American people tend to take the idea of the last meal to heart, though, and

somehow make it their own. Many visitors to the Dead Man Eating website and

message boards all over the internet do this by submitting their own “last meal

requests,” as if they were going to die tomorrow. Apparently, then, this fixation

on the last meal is not limited to intrusive consumption of execution records;

it extends to the public and their own final food choices. In fact, the subject

of hypothetical last meals has given this icon of criminality and death a fresh,

not-so-morbid vantage point. James L. Dickerson’s book, Last Suppers: If the

world ended tomorrow, what would be your last meal? asks popular celebrities and

political figures to divulge their last meal of choice. Bill Clinton, for instance,

would like to enjoy chicken enchiladas before his hypothetical death (117), and

professional football coach Mike Ditka (22) fancies pigs in a blanket. My Last

Supper, by Melanie Dunea, asks the same of chefs.

Still others forego the macabre enjoyment and the distant speculation

and use the vivid image of eating for the last time to protest the death penalty

through art. Photographer Jacquelyn C. Black organizes pictures of inmates and

their meals in a book entitled Last Meal, in which she also includes statistics.

According to the publisher’s description, for example, 10 of the 12 states without

the death penalty have homicide rates below the national average. University of

Oklahoma professor Julie Green paints a series of dinner plates, each depicting

what was on the last plate of a particular inmate. Reading about the executions

in the newspaper “humanized death row” for her and struck her as an invasion

of privacy (“Artist”). Whether they seek revenge or redemption, Americans see

the last meal as a symbol in the life-or-death of justice, on death row and in their

living rooms.

The final episode of The Sopranos illustrates the place of “The Last Supper,”

generally speaking, in the American psyche. Mob leader Tony Soprano sits down

at Holsten’s diner in New Jersey and tension builds around him as the other

Jeung 6

Stevie turns her attention to the motivations of the public in its obsession with last meals and other execution details.

The writer summarizes sources.

The writer turns to artistic renderings of last meals, works that make political statements.

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format 525

characters bustle about in their respective scenes. The viewer gets the distinct

feeling that they are preparing to kill Tony, who looks nervous, as though he

knows that his criminal career is about to end in execution. Tony’s family arrives

at the diner and as he offers a basket of onion rings around the table, and before

we find out whether or not he dies, the scene cuts to black (“Made in America”).

The end. No more Tony, no more Sopranos. This could just be another

cliff hanger, but many fans see it as Tony’s “Last Supper,” and “If Holsten’s onion

rings—round, crunchy, and, according to one influential diner, the best in the

state—didn’t symbolize communion wafers, as some viewers of the final scene

of The Sopranos have theorized, they do now” (Hyman). The point is that the

subsequent pilgrimage to Holsten’s taken by many fans of the show proves one of

two things. Either a) the mega-hit show did intend to showcase a symbolic “last

meal” for its main character, or b) all of these people are making it up. Either

case gives powerful support to the idea that this last ritual of consumption

is popularly recognized as the appropriate ending to a life, whether fictional,

criminal, or biblical.

The interplay between the public, the media, and the criminal justice

system gives the last meal a unique importance to each. The criminal system

perpetuates the tradition in its own interest and uses the media to lend

righteousness to its questionable and somewhat manipulative actions, but the

media and the public interact to derive much greater religious, social, emotional,

and political meaning, thus creating a pervasive and lasting icon which

permeates popular culture and popular perception. Thomas J. Grasso, executed

by lethal injection in Oklahoma (1995), seemed to appreciate the significance

of a last meal in the public eye when he gave his last speech: “I did not get my

Spaghetti-O’s, I got spaghetti. I want the press to know this” (“Last Words”).

Jeung 7

Exploring an example from television, the writer pulls together the strands of her analysis.

In her conclusion, the writer answers her original questions and offers a final quotation that drives home her point and harkens back to her title.

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Documentation and Format Styles526

Works Cited

Abramsky, Sasha. American Furies: Crime, Punishment, and Vengeance in the

Age of Mass Imprisonment. Boston: Beacon Press, 2007. Print.

“Artist serves ‘Last Supper’ on plates.” Lawrence Journal. 29 Oct 2006. Web. 5

Feb 2008.

Atwell, Mary Welek. Evolving Standards of Decency: Popular Culture and

Capital Punishment. New York: Peter Lang, 2004. Print.

“Confessions of a Death Row Chef.” The Observer. 14 March 2004. Web. 5 Feb

2008.

“Death Row Information.” Texas Department of Criminal Justice. 7 Nov 2007.

Web. 5 Feb 2008.

Dickerson, James L. Last Suppers: If the world ended tomorrow, what would be

your last meal? USA: Citadel, 2004. Print.

Fritsch, Jane. “Word for Word/Execution Protocol; Please Order Your Last

Meal Seven Days in Advance.” The New York Times. 22 April 2001. Web.

5 Feb 2008.

The Green Mile. Dir. Frank Darabont. Perf. Tom Hanks, Michael Clarke

Duncan, David Morse, and Bonnie Hunt. Castle Rock, 1999. Film.

Greene, Bob. “They didn’t get to choose their last meals.” Jewish World Review.

12 June 2001. Web. 5 Feb 2008.

Hyman, Vicki. “Chewing Over Tony’s Last Meal.” The Star Ledger. 23 June

2007. Web. 5 Feb 2008.

Karon, Tony. “Why We’re Fascinated by Death Row Cuisine.” TIME. 10

August 2000. Web. 5 Feb 2008.

Jeung 8 The list of works cited begins on a separate page and includes the title, header, and page number.

The paper’s bibliography lists a range of scholarly books, trade books, scholarly articles, popular articles, and websites on the topic.

Sources are listed in alphabetical order by author (or by title if no author is given) and identified by medium.

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Chapter 31 MLA Documentation Format

Reading for Better Writing

527

LaChance, Daniel. “Last Words, Last Meals, and Last Stands: Agency and

Individuality in the Modern Execution Process.” Law & Social Inquiry

32 (2007): 701-724. JSTOR. Web. 5 Feb 2008.

“Last Words on Death Row.” CNN: The Best of Court TV. 31 Dec 2007. Web. 5

Feb 2008.

“Made in America.” The Sopranos. Dir. David Chase. HBO. 10 June 2007.

Television.

Peck, John. “Last Meals.” Tuscon Weekly. 5 Jan 2006. Print. 5 Feb 2008.

Price, Brian D. Meals to Die For. USA: Dyna-Paige Corporation, 2001. Print.

“Sleight of Hand.” Prison Break. Dir. Dwight Little. Fox Network. 7 Nov. 2005.

Television.

“The Springfield Connection.” The Simpsons. Dir. Mark Kirkland. Fox

Network. 7 May. 1995. Television.

Jeung 8

1. What are your thoughts about capital punishment, and more broadly about crime and punishment? How did reading Jeung’s paper on last meals contribute to your understanding?

2. Did you find her paper engaging? Why or why not?

3. What types of evidence does Jeung use in her paper? Where has she gotten her evidence? Are her resources reliable?

4. How does Jeung distinguish her own thinking from source material? Why are these strategies necessary?

Each entry provides complete identifying information, properly formatted.

Items are double- spaced throughout. Second and subsequent lines are indented (hanging indent).

Quotation marks and italics are properly used with titles, as are punctuation and abbreviations.

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Documentation and Format Styles

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following critical-thinking and writing activities by yourself or with classmates.

1. The MLA style involves many rules about format and documentation. To make some sense of these rules, answer this question by yourself or with classmates: What is the essential logic of the MLA system?

2. Create MLA works-cited entries for the following publications: ■ An article in the May 27, 2002, issue (vol. 145, no. 11) of Fortune magazine

by Joseph Nocera: “Return of the Raider” (pages 97–114) ■ Ernest Hemingway’s novel A Farewell to Arms, published in 1986 by Collier

Books, located in New York City ■ The webpage “Aruba,” part of The 2008 World Factbook, sponsored by the

Central Intelligence Agency. No author or publication date is listed. The site was last accessed March 8, 2011, at http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/ the-world-factbook/ index.html.

Learning-Outcomes Checklist As you format your paper and document your research according to MLA guidelines, use the checklist below to review your work.

All borrowed material is acknowledged with an appropriate attributive phrase and/or in-text citation indicating author and page number, as appropriate. The works-cited list includes entries for all works referred to in the body of the paper: No sources are missing from the list; no extra sources are listed that have no reference within the paper. The entire works-cited list is properly alphabetized by authors’ last names (or by the first main word in the title for anonymous works). Each works-cited entry contains the maximum amount of identifying and publication information, in the proper order, using all of the accepted abbreviations. The entire paper is properly formatted, from the first page heading and title to the final works-cited page entry. Placement, spacing, and margins are correct for the paper’s header, the heading, the title, and “Works Cited.” Pagination is correct and consistent. First lines of paragraphs and inset quotations are properly indented; works- cited entries are properly formatted with a hanging indent. The paper is cleanly printed single-sided on quality paper. The paper is properly bound with a paper clip in the upper-left corner.

528

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Visually Speaking

529

Those who write papers in the social sciences—psychology, sociology, political science, and education, for example— usually follow the research-writing guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA). This chapter summarizes these guidelines and helps you use APA format and documentation.

APA format is similar to MLA format in two ways: Both require (1) parenthetical citations within the text and (2) a final listing of all references cited in the paper. But in the social sciences, the date of publication is often much more crucial than it is in the humanities, so the date is highlighted in in-text citations. APA format also requires a cover page and an abstract.

APA Documentation Format32

How does the image above connote research in the sciences?

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand APA

documentation style.

▶ Understand APA in-text citations.

▶ Review in-text citations. ▶ Understand APA

references.

▶ Review a sample APA paper.

Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

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 APA Research Paper Guidelines

Questions and Answers

Is a separate title page required?

Yes. Include your paper’s title, your name, and the name of your school on three separate lines, double-spaced, centered, and beginning approximately one-third of the way down from the top of the page. Place a shortened title and page number 1 in the upper-right corner. (See “What about paging?” on the next page.)

What is an abstract and where does it go?

An abstract is required in APA format. An abstract is a 100- to 150-word paragraph summarizing your research paper. (See page 547.) Place your abstract on a new page and label it “Abstract” (centered); type your short title and page number 2 f lush right one-half inch from the top.

Are references placed in the text?

Yes. Include the author and year, separated by a comma; for quotations, add the page number after a comma and “p.”

Do you need a bibliography of sources used in the paper?

Yes. Full citations for all sources used (books, periodicals, and so on) are placed in an alphabetized list labeled “References” at the end of the paper.

How are the reference lists to be indented?

Confusion sometimes arises over how the reference lists of APA manuscripts should be indented. Normal paragraph indentation has been called for by APA in the past. However, hanging indentation as shown in this chapter is currently the preferred manuscript form for APA documents, including student papers. As always, ask your instructor if you are in doubt.

Do you need an appendix?

Maybe. Ask your instructor. In student papers, charts, tables, and graphs may sometimes be incorporated at appropriate points in the text, making appendices unnecessary.

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Chapter 32 APA Documentation Format 531

What about longer quotations?

Type quotations of 40 or more words in block style (all lines f lush left) five spaces in from the left margin. Indent the first lines of any additional paragraphs in the long quotation five spaces in from the margin set for the quotation.

What about margins?

Leave a margin of at least one inch on all four sides (if you are binding your paper, leave one and one-half inches at the left margin).

What about paging?

Page numbers appear at the top-right margin, above the first line of text. The title appears in all capital letters at the top- left margin, as a running head. The words “Running head:” precede this title on the title page only.

What about headings?

Headings, li ke an out line, show t he organization of your paper a nd t he i mpor ta nce of each topic. A l l topics of equal importance should have headings of the same level, or style. Below are the various levels of headings used in APA papers. (In most research papers, only levels 1, 3, and 4 are used.)

Any other special instructions?

A lways ask whet her your school or depar tment has special requirements that may take precedence over these guidelines.

Level 1: Centered, Bold, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Level 2: Flush Left, Bold, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Level 3: Indented, bold, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.

Level 4: Indented, bold, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.

Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

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 Guidelines for In-Text Citations The Form of an Entry

The APA documentation style is sometimes called the “author–date” system because both the author and the date of the publication must be mentioned in the text when citing a source. Both might appear in the f low of the sentence, like this:

Children in India are being trafficked for adoption, organ transplants, and labor

such as prostitution, according to a 2007 article by Nilanjana Ray.

If either name or date does not appear in the text, it must be mentioned within parentheses at the most convenient place, like this:

According to an article by Nilanjana Ray (2007), children in India . . .

According to a recent article (Ray, 2007), children in India . . .

Points to Remember

1. When paraphrasing rather than quoting, make it clear where your borrowing begins and ends. Use stylistic cues to distinguish the source’s thoughts (“Kalmbach points out . . . ,” “Some critics argue . . .”) from your own (“I believe . . . ,” “It seems obvious, however . . .”).

2. When using a shortened title of a work, begin with the word by which the work is alphabetized in your references list (for example, for “Measurement of Stress in Fasting Man,” use “Measurement of Stress,” not “Fasting Man”).

3. When including a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence, place it before the end punctuation: (Sacks, 1964).

 Sample In-Text Citations  One Author: A Complete Work The correct form for a parenthetical reference to a single source by a single author is parenthesis, last name, comma, space, year of publication, parenthesis. Also note that final punctuation should be placed outside the parentheses.

. . . in this way, the public began to connect certain childhood vaccinations with

an autism epidemic (Baker, 2008).

 One Author: Part of a Work When you cite a specific part of a source, give the page number, chapter, or section, using the appropriate abbreviations (p. or pp., chap., or sec. For others, see page 536). Always give the page number for a direct quotation.

. . . while a variety of political and scientific forces were at work in the developing

crisis, it was parents who pressed the case “that autism had become epidemic and

that vaccines were its cause” (Baker, 2008, p. 251).

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 One Author: Several Publications in the Same Year If the same author has published two or more articles in the same year, avoid confusion by placing a small letter a after the first work listed in the references list, b after the next one, and so on. Determine the order alphabetically by title.

Parenthetical Citation:

Reefs harbor life forms heretofore unknown (Milius, 2001a, 2001b).

References:

Milius, D. (2001a). Another world hides inside coral reefs. Science News, 160(16), 244.

Milius, D. (2001b). Unknown squids—with elbows—tease science. Science News,

160(24), 390.

 Works by Authors with the Same Last Name When citing different sources by authors with the same last name, add the authors’ initials to avoid confusion, even if the publication dates are different.

While J. D. Wallace (2009) argued that privatizing social security would benefit only

the wealthiest citizens, others such as E. S. Wallace (2011) supported greater control

for individuals.

 Two to Five Authors In APA style, all authors—up to as many as five—must be mentioned in the first text citation, like this:

Love changes not just who we are, but who we can become, as well (Lewis, Amini,

& Lannon, 2000).

Note: The last two authors’ names are always separated by a comma and an ampersand (&) when enclosed in parentheses.

For works with two authors, list both in every citation. For works with three to five authors, list all only the first time; after that, use only the name of the first author followed by “et al.,” like this:

These discoveries lead to the hypothesis that love actually alters the brain’s

structure (Lewis et al., 2000).

 Six or More Authors If your source has six or more authors, refer to the work by the first author’s name followed by “et al.,” both for the first reference in the text and all references after that. However, be sure to list all the authors (up to six) in your references list.

According to a recent study, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) continues to

dominate the lives of Vietnam veterans, though in modified forms (Trembley et al.,

2010).

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 A Work Authored by an Agency, a Committee, or Other Organization Treat the name of the group as if it were the last name of the author. If the name is long and easily abbreviated, provide the abbreviation in square brackets. Use the abbreviation without brackets in subsequent references, as follows:

First Text Citation:

A problem for many veterans continues to be heightened sensitivity to noise

(National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2005).

Subsequent Citations:

In addition, veterans suffering from PTSD continue to have difficulty discussing

their experiences (NIMH, 2005).

 A Work with No Author Indicated If your source lists no author, treat the first few words of the title (capitalized normally) as you would an author’s last name. A title of an article or a chapter belongs in quotation marks; the titles of books or reports should be italicized:

. . . including a guide to low-stress postures (“How to Do It,” 2001).

 A Work Referred to in Another Work If you need to cite a source that you have found referred to in another source (a “secondary” source), mention the original source in your text. Then, in your parenthetical citation, cite the secondary source, using the words “as cited in.”

. . . theorem given by Ullman (as cited in Hoffman, 1998).

Note: In your references list at the end of the paper, you would write out a full citation for Hoffman (not Ullman).

 A Work in an Anthology When citing an article or a chapter in an anthology or a collection, use the authors’ names for the specific article, not the names of the anthology’s editors. (Similarly, the article should be listed by its authors’ names in the references section. See page 537.)

Phonological changes can be understood from a variationist perspective (Guy,

2005).

 An Electronic or Other Internet Source As with print sources, cite an electronic source by the author (or by shortened title if the author is unknown) and the publication date (not the date you accessed the source). If citing a specific part of the source, use an appropriate abbreviation: p. for page, (paragraph symbol) or para. for paragraph, and chap. for chapter.

One study compared and contrasted the use of web and touch screen transaction

log files in a hospital setting (Nicholas, Huntington, & Williams, 2001).

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 A Website Whenever possible, cite a website by its author and posting date. In addition, refer to a specific page or document rather than to a home page or a menu page. If you are referring to a specific part of a webpage that does not have page numbers, direct your reader, if possible, with a section heading and a paragraph number.

According to the National Multiple Sclerosis Society (2003, “Complexities” section,

para. 2), understanding of MS could not begin until scientists began to research

nerve transmission in the 1920s.

 Two or More Works in a Parenthetical Reference Sometimes it is necessary to lump several citations into one parenthetical reference. In that case, cite the sources as you usually would, separating the citations with semicolons. Place the citations in alphabetical order, just as they would be ordered in the references list.

Others report near-death experiences (Rommer, 2000; Sabom, 1998).

 A Sacred Text or Famous Literary Work Sacred texts and famous literary works are published in many different editions. For that reason, the original date of publication may be unavailable or not pertinent. In these cases, use your edition’s year of translation (for example, trans. 2003) or indicate your edition’s year of publication (2003 version). When you are referring to specific sections of the work, it is best to identify parts, chapters, or other divisions instead of your version’s page numbers.

An interesting literary case of such dysfunctional family behavior can be found in

Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, where it becomes the commandment of family

duty for Gregor’s parents and sister to swallow their disgust and endure him (trans.

1972, part 3).

Books of the Bible and other well-known literary works may be abbreviated, if no confusion is possible.

“Generations come and generations go, but the earth remains forever” (The New

International Version Study Bible, 1985 version, Eccles. 1.4).

 Personal Communications If you do the kind of personal research recommended elsewhere in The College Writer, you may have to cite personal communications that have provided you with some of your knowledge. Personal communications may include personal letters, phone calls, memos, and so forth. Because they are not published in a permanent form, APA style does not place them among the citations in your references list. Instead, cite them only in the text of your paper in parentheses, like this:

. . . according to M. T. Cann (personal communication, April 1, 2011).

. . . by today (M. T. Cann, personal communication, April 1, 2011).

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Documentation and Format Styles536

Quick Guide APA References

The references section lists all the sources you have cited in your text (with the exception of personal communications such as phone calls and e-mails). Begin your references list on a new page after the last page of your paper. Number each references page, continuing the numbering from the text. Then format your references list by following the guidelines below.

1. Type the running head in the upper-left corner and the page number in the upper-right corner, approximately one-half inch from the top of the page.

2. Center the title, References, approximately one inch from the top; then double-space before the first entry.

3. Begin each entry f lush with the left margin. If the entry runs more than one line, indent additional lines approximately one-half inch (five to seven spaces) using a hanging indent.

4. Adhere to the following conventions about spacing, capitalization, and italics: ■ Double-space between all lines on the references page. ■ Use one space following each word and punctuation mark. ■ With book and article titles, capitalize only the first letter of the title

(and subtitle) and proper nouns. (Note that this practice differs from the presentation of titles in the body of the essay.) Example: The impact of the cold war on Asia.

■ Use italics for titles of books and periodicals, not underlining.

5. List each entry alphabetically by the last name of the author, or, if no author is given, by the title (disregarding A, An, or The). For works with multiple authors, use the first author listed in the publication.

6. Follow these conventions with respect to abbreviations: ■ With authors’ names, generally shorten first and middle names to initials,

leaving a space after the period. For a work with more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name.

■ For publisher locations, use the full city name plus the two-letter U.S. Postal Service abbreviation for the state. For international publishers, include a province and country name.

■ Spell out “Press” in full, but for other publishing information, use the abbreviations below.

Comp. ....... compiler, compiled, compiled by Ed. .............. editor(s) N.d. ............ no date given N.p. ............ no place of publication, no publisher given p., pp. ........ page(s) (if necessary for clarity)

Pt. ................................. Part Sec. (sect.) section(s) 2nd ed. ....................... Second edition Suppl. ......................... Supplement Tech. Rep. ................... Technical Report Trans. (tr.) .................... translator, translation

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Chapter 32 APA Documentation Format 537

 Reference Entries: Books and Other Documents

The general form for a book or brochure entry is this:

Author, A. (year). Title. Location: Publisher.

The entries that follow illustrate the information needed to cite books, sections of a book, brochures, and government publications.

 A Book by One Author

Kuriansky, J. (2007). Beyond bullets and bombs: Grassroots peacebuilding between

Israelis and Palestinians. Westport, CT: Praeger Press.

 A Book by Two or More Authors List up to seven authors by last name and first initial, separating them by commas, with an ampersand (&) before the last.

Hooyman, N., & Kramer, B. (2006). Living through loss: Interventions across the life

span. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

For eight or more authors, list the first six followed by an ellipsis, and then the last.

 An Anonymous Book If an author is listed as “Anonymous,” treat it as the author’s name. Otherwise, follow this format:

Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). (2010).

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

 A Chapter from a Book List the chapter title after the date of publication, followed by a period or appropriate end punctuation. Use In before the book title, and follow the book title with the inclusive page numbers of the chapter.

Tattersall, I. (2002). How did we achieve humanity? In The monkey in the mirror (pp.

138–168). New York, NY: Harcourt.

 A Single Work from an Anthology Start with information about the individual work, followed by details about the collection in which it appears, including the page span. For editors’ names in the middle of an entry, follow the usual order: initial first, surname last. Note the placement of Eds. in parentheses.

Guy, G. R. (2005). Variationist approaches to phonological change. In B. D. Joseph

& R. D. Janda (Eds.), The handbook of historical linguistics (pp. 369–400).

Malden, MA: Blackwell.

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 One Volume of a Multivolume Edited Work Indicate the volume in parentheses after the work’s title.

Salzman, J., Smith, D. L., & West, C. (Eds.). (1996). Encyclopedia of African-American

culture and history (Vol. 4). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.

 A Separately Titled Volume in a Multivolume Work

The Associated Press. (1995). Twentieth-century America: Vol. 8. The crisis of national

confidence: 1974–1980. Danbury, CT: Grolier Educational Corp.

Note: When a work is part of a larger series or collection, as with this example, make a two-part title with the series and the particular volume you are citing.

 An Edited Work, One in a Series Start the entry with the work’s author, publication date, and title. Then follow with publication details about the series.

Marshall, P. G. (2002). The impact of the cold war on Asia. In

T. O’Neill (Ed.), World history by era: Vol. 9. The nuclear age

(pp. 162–166). San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press.

 A Group Author as Publisher When the author is also the publisher, simply put Author in the spot where you would list the publisher’s name.

Amnesty International. (2007). Maze of injustice: The failure to protect indigenous

women from sexual violence in the USA. London: Author.

Note: If the publication is a brochure, identify it as such in brackets after the title.

 An Edition Other Than the First

Trimmer, J. (2001). Writing with a purpose (13th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

 Two or More Books by the Same Author When you are listing multiple works by the same author, arrange them by the year of publication, earliest first.

Sacks, O. (1995). An Anthropologist on Mars: Seven paradoxical tales. New York, NY:

Alfred A. Knopf.

Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia: Tales of music and the brain. New York, NY: Alfred A.

Knopf.

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Chapter 32 APA Documentation Format 539

 An English Translation

Setha, R. (1998). Unarmed (R. Narasimhan, Trans.). Chennai, India: Macmillan.

(Original work published 1995)

Note: If you use the original work, cite the original version; the non-English title is followed by its English translation, not italicized, in square brackets.

 An Article in a Reference Book Start the entry with the author of the article, if identified. If no author is listed, begin the entry with the title of the article.

Lewer, N. (1999). Non-lethal weapons. In World encyclopedia of peace (pp. 279–

280). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.

 A Reprint, Different Form

Albanov, V. (2000). In the land of white death: An epic story of survival in the Siberian

Arctic. New York, NY: Modern Library. (Original work published 1917)

Note: This work was originally published in Russia in 1917; the 2000 reprint is the first English version. If you are citing a reprint from another source, the parentheses would contain “Reprinted from Title, pp. xx–xx, by A. Author, year, Location: Publisher.”

 A Technical or Research Report

Taylor, B. G., Fitzgerald, N., Hunt, D., Reardon, J. A., & Brownstein, H. H. (2001).

ADAM preliminary 2000 findings on drug use and drug markets: Adult male

arrestees. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.

 A Government Publication Generally, refer to the government agency as the author. When possible, provide an identification number for the document after the title in parentheses.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2000). Inhalant abuse (NIH Publication No.

00–3818). Rockville, MD: National Clearinghouse

on Alcohol and Drug Information.

For reports obtained from the U.S. Government Printing Office, list location and publisher as “Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.”

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 Reference Entries: Print Periodical Articles The general form for a periodical entry is this:

Author, A. (year). Article title. Periodical Title, volume number (issue number), page

numbers.

If the periodical does not use volume and issue numbers, include some other designation with the year, such as a date, a month, or a season. The entries that follow illustrate the information and arrangement needed to cite most types of print periodicals.

Note: Issue number is required only for journals that paginate each issue separately.

 An Article in a Scholarly Journal

Benson, P., Karlof, K. L., & Siperstein, G. N. (2008). Maternal involvement in the

education of young children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism: The

International Journal of Research & Practice, 12(1), 47–63.

Note: Pay attention to the features of this basic reference to a scholarly journal:

1. Provide the authors’ last names and initials, as for a book reference.

2. Place the year of publication in parentheses, followed by a period.

3. Format the article’s title in lowercase, except for the first word of the main title and of a subtitle and except for proper nouns, acronyms, or initialisms; do not italicize the article title or place it in quotation marks.

4. Capitalize the first and all main words in the journal title; italicize it.

5. Italicize the volume number but not the issue number; place the issue in parentheses, without a space after the volume number. No issue number is needed if the journal is paginated consecutively throughout a volume.

6. Provide inclusive page numbers, without “pp.” or “pages.”

 An Abstract of a Scholarly Article (from a Secondary Source) When referencing an abstract published separately from an article, provide publication details of the article followed by information about where the abstract was published.

Shlipak, M. G., Simon, J. A., Grady, O., Lin, F., Wenger, N. K., & Furberg, C. D. (2001,

September). Renal insufficiency and cardiovascular events in postmenopausal

women with coronary heart disease. Journal of the American College of

Cardiology, 38, 705–711. Abstract obtained from Geriatrics, 2001, 56(12),

Abstract No. 5645351.

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 A Journal Article, More Than Seven Authors

Yamada, A., Suzuki, M., Kato, M., Suzuki, M., Tanaka, S., Shindo, T., Taketani, K., et

al. (2007). Emotional distress and its correlates among parents of children

with persuasive developmental disorders. Psychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences,

61(6), 651–657.

Note: In the text, abbreviate the parenthetical citation: (Yamada et al., 2007).

 A Review To reference a book review or a review of another medium (film, exhibit, and so on), indicate the review and the medium in brackets, along with the title of the work being reviewed by the author listed.

Hutcheon, L., & Hutcheon, M. (2008). Turning into the mind. [Review of the book

Musicophilia: Tales of music and the brain, by O. Sacks]. Canadian Medical

Association Journal, 178(4), 441.

 A Magazine Article

Weintraub, B. (2007, October). Unusual suspects. Psychology Today, 40(5), 80–87.

Note: If the article is unsigned, begin the entry with the title of the article.

Tomatoes target toughest cancer. (2002, February). Prevention, 54(2), 53.

 A Newspaper Article For newspaper articles, include the full publication date, year first followed by a comma, the month (spelled out) and the day. Identify the article’s location in the newspaper using page numbers and section letters, as appropriate. If the article is a letter to the editor, identify it as such in brackets following the title. For newspapers, use p. or pp. before the page numbers; if the article is not on continuous pages, give all the page numbers, separated by commas.

Schmitt, E., & Shanker, T. (2008, March 18). U.S. adapts cold-war idea to fight

terrorists. The New York Times, pp. 1A, 14A–15A.

Benderoff, E. (2008, March 14). Facebook sites face scrutiny for March Madness

pools. Chicago Tribune, pp. 2C–3C.

 A Newsletter Article Newsletter article entries are similar to newspaper article entries; only a volume number is added.

Teaching mainstreamed special education students. (2002, February). The Council

Chronicle, pp. 11, 6–8.

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 Reference Entries: Online Sources When it comes to references for online sources, follow these guidelines:

1. Whenever possible, use the final version of an electronic resource. Typically, this is called the archival copy or the version of record, as opposed to a prepublished version. Right now, that final version is likely the same as the printed version of an article, though there is some movement toward the online publication being the final version (complete with additional data, graphics, and so on).

2. In the reference entry for an electronic source, start with the same elements in the same order for print or other fixed-media resources (author, title, and so on). Then add the most reliable electronic retrieval information that will (a) clarify what version of the source you used and (b) help your reader find the source him- or herself. Determine what you need to include based on these guidelines: ■ Whenever possible, use the electronic document’s Digital Object Identifier (DOI).

More and more, electronic publishers are using this registration code for the content of journal articles and other documents so that the document can be located on the Internet, even if the URL changes. The DOI will usually be published at the beginning of the article or be available in the article’s citation.

Author, A. A. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue

number), pages. doi: code

■ If a DOI is not available for the electronic document, give the URL (without a period at the end). Generally, a database name is no longer needed, except for hard- to-find documents and those accessed through subscription-only databases. Use the home- or menu-page URL for subscription-only databases and online reference works.

Author, A. A. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue

number), pages. Retrieved from URL

■ If the content of the document is stable (e.g., archival copy or copy of record with DOI), do not include a retrieval date in your reference entry. However, if the content is likely to change or be updated, as is the case with a lot of the material on the free web, then offer a retrieval date. This would be the case with open-web material with no fixed publication date, edition, or version, or material that is prepublished (in preparation, in press).

Author, A. A. (year). Title of document. Retrieved date from website: URL

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Chapter 32 APA Documentation Format 543

 A Journal Article with DOI

Oberg, A., Blades, D., & Thom, J. S. (2007). Untying a dreamcatcher: Coming to

understand possibilities for teaching students of aboriginal inheritance.

Educational Studies, 42(2), 111–139. doi: 10.1080/00131940701513185

Note: Because the DOI references the final version of the article, the retrieval date, URL, and database name are not needed. If the online article is a preprint version, add “Advance online publication” and your retrieval date before the DOI.

 A Journal Article Without DOI

Bell, J. B., & Nye, E. C. (2007). Specific symptoms predict suicidal ideation in

Vietnam combat veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Military

Medicine, 172(11), 1144–1147. Retrieved from http://www.ebscohost.com

Note: Because this article has no DOI, the URL is provided for the subscription database search service. If you retrieved the article from the open web, you would supply the exact URL. If the version of the article you access is in press and you have retrieved it from the author’s personal or institutional website, place “in press” in parentheses after the author’s name and add a retrieval date before the URL.

 A Newspaper Article

Sengupta, S. (2008, March 18). Dalai Lama says he’ll resign if violence escalates.

The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

 An Article in an Online Magazine (Ezine) not Published in Print

Pike, D. L. (2008, February). A boy and his dog: On Will Smith, apocalypse, and

I Am Legend [Online exclusive]. Bright Lights Film Journal. Retrieved April 17,

2008, from http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/59/59legend.html

 A Book Review

Shapiro, K. (2007). Mystic chords. [Review of the book Musicophilia: Tales of music

and the brain, by O. Sacks]]. Commentary, 124(5), 73–77. Retrieved from http:

//web.ebscohost.com

 An Electronic Book

Kafka, F. (2002). Metamorphosis. D. Wylie (Trans.). Available from http:

//www.gutenberg.org/etext/5200

Note: If the URL goes directly to the ebook, use “Retrieved from.”

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 Material from an Online Reference Work

Agonism. (2008). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://search.eb.com

Note: See pages 466–467 for advice on using Wikipedia.

 Online Course Material

Roderiguez, N. Unit 3, Lecture 3: Sociological Theories of Deviance. Retrieved from

University of Houston Website: http://www.uh.edu/~nestor/lecturenotes

/unit3lecture3.html

 A Workplace Document or Other “Gray Literature.” “Gray Literature” refers to informative documents (e.g., brochures, fact sheets, white papers) produced by government agencies, corporations, and nonprofit groups. If possible, give a document number or identify the type of document in brackets.

Foehr, U. G. (2006). Media multitasking among American youth: Prevelance,

predictors and pairings (Publication No. 7592). Retrieved from the Kaiser Family

Foundation: http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/7592.pdf

 Undated Content on Website

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. (n.d.). Antimicrobial (Drug)

Resistance. Retrieved June 19, 2008, from http://www3

.niaid.nih.gov/topics/AntimicrobialResistance/default.htm

 A Podcast

Byrd, D., & Block, J. (Producers). (2008, February 5). Antonio Rangel: This is your

brain on wine. Earth & Sky: A Clear Voice for Science [Audio podcast]. Retrieved

from http://www.earthsky.org/clear-voices/52199

 Message on a Newsgroup, an Online Forum, or a Discussion Group

Avnish, J. (2008, March 18). Sex education especially vital to teens nowadays.

[Online Forum post]. Retrieved from http://groups.google.ca/group/AIDS

-Beyond-Borders/topics?hl=en

 A Blog Post

Koyzis, D. (2007, June 27). Conservative environmentalists. [Web log post].

Retrieved from http://byzantinecalvinist.blogspot.com/2007_06_01_archive

.html

Note about URLs: When necessary, break a URL before a slash or other punctuation mark. Do not underline or italicize the URL, place it in angle brackets, or end it with a period.

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 Reference Entries: Other Sources (Primary, Personal, and Multimedia)

Cite audiovisual media sources and electronic sources as follows.

 Specialized Computer Software with Limited Distribution Standard nonspecialized computer software does not require a reference entry. Treat software as an unauthored work unless an individual has property rights to it.

Carreau, S. (2001). Champfoot (Version 3.3) [Computer software]. Saint Mandé,

France: Author.

Show the software version in parentheses after the title and the medium in brackets.

 A Television or Radio Broadcast Indicate the episode by writers, if possible. Then follow with the airing date, the episode title, and the type of series in brackets. Add the producer(s) as you would the editors(s) of a print medium, and complete the entry with details about the series itself.

Berger, C. (Writer). (2001, December 19). Feederwatch [Radio series program]. In D.

Byrd & J. Block (Producers), Earth & Sky. Austin, TX: The Production Block.

 An Audio Recording Begin the entry with the speaker’s or writer’s name, not the producer. Indicate the type of recording in brackets.

Kim, E. (Author, speaker). (2000). Ten thousand sorrows [CD]. New York, NY: Random

House.

 A Music Recording Give the name and function of the originators or primary contributors. Indicate the recording medium in brackets immediately following the title.

ARS Femina Ensemble. (Performers). (1998). Musica de la puebla de Los Angeles:

Music by women of baroque Mexico, Cuba, & Europe [CD]. Louisville, KY: Nannerl

Recordings.

 A Motion Picture Give the name and function of the director, producer, or both.

Cohn, J., & Cohn, E. (Directors). (2007). No country for old men [Motion picture].

United States: Miramax Films.

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 Sample APA Paper Student writer Renee Danielle Singh wrote the following research paper on the mystery of the lost colonists of Roanoke Island. In the paper, written for an anthropology class, she explores a range of historical, genetic, and linguistic evidence to resolve this mystery and to explain its continuing relevance. For more on Roanoke’s lost colony and the Lumbee People of North Carolina, go to www.thecollegewriter.com/4e. You can use Renee’s paper in three ways:

1. To study how a well-written research paper uses a range of resources to build a discussion or line of reasoning that answers a research question.

2. To examine how sources are used and integrated into social-sciences research writing—a full-length discussion of the strategies addressed on pages 484–487.

3. To see in detail the format and documentation practices of APA style.

Note: Often, a social-sciences research paper takes the form of an experiment report. For an example of such a report, go to www.thecollegewriter.com/4e.

 A Published Interview, Titled, No Author Start the entry with the interview’s title, followed by publication details.

Stephen Harper: The Report interview. (2002, January 7). The Report (Alberta, BC),

29, 10–11.

 A Published Interview, Titled, Single Author Start the entry with the interviewee’s name, followed by the date and the title. Place the interviewer’s name in brackets before other publication details.

Fussman, C. (2002, January). What I’ve learned. [Interview by Robert McNamara.]

Esquire, 137, 85.

 An Unpublished Paper Presented at a Meeting Indicate when the paper was presented, at what meeting, in what location.

Lycan, W. (2002, June). The plurality of consciousness. Paper presented at the

meeting of the Society for Philosophy and Psychology, New York, NY.

 An Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation Place the dissertation’s title in italics, even though the work is unpublished. Indicate the school at which the writer completed the dissertation.

Roberts, W. (2001). Crime amidst suburban wealth (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation). Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH.

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Sample Abstract

Sample Title Page

Note that APA format requires that the paper be double-spaced throughout, with a one-inch margin on all sides. That formatting is shown on the book’s website www.thecollegewriter. com/4e.

Running head: OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 1

Our Roots Go Back to Roanoke:

Investigating the Link between

the Lost Colony and the Lumbee People of North Carolina

Renee Danielle Singh

University of California Davis

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 2

Abstract

While remaining something of a mystery, the disappearance in the

late sixteenth century of a group of colonists from Roanoke Island

off North Carolina is likely related to the mystery of the ancestry of

the North Carolina’s Native American Lumbee tribe. Using evidence

from the parallel example of the Catawba Indians, as well as evidence

related to baldcypress tree rings, historical analysis, immunology,

genetic studies, and linguistic patterns, one can tentatively conclude

that the lost colonists were perhaps captured by, intermarried with,

and were absorbed by the sixteenth-century ancestors of the Lumbee.

This conclusion points to the need for further study, as the Lumbee

People’s status as Native American is currently contested and needs to

be resolved for them to be recognized by the federal government.

Put five spaces between the header and number.

Type running head (abbreviated title in uppercase letters) flush left.

Full title, author(s), and school name are centered on the page, typed in uppercase and lowercase.

The abstract summarizes the paper’s central issue, its main conclusion, the key reasoning and evidence presented, and the study’s significance.

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Our Roots Go Back to Roanoke:

Investigating the Link between the Lost Colony

and the Lumbee People of North Carolina

Introduction: Something Is Terribly Wrong

Consider the following narrative, which features historical

information from Kupperman (1984, 1985), Miller (2002), Oberg (1994),

and Quinn (1985):

Imagine yourself sailing across the warm waters of the Atlantic. It is a

time before airplanes and automobiles, and our nation, which someday will

lie just a few miles ahead of you, is still called the “New World.” You are

on your way to an island off the coast of what will one day be called North

Carolina, and you are anxious to see what a small group of colonists has

accomplished since their arrival there three years ago. Yes, this is the age of

colonization. This is the beginning of a nation.

As you draw closer to land, however, you get a strange feeling that

something is terribly wrong. No fires are burning on the island, no greeters

waving. Instead, an eerie silence fills the air. At once, you cast your anchor

and row ashore, hoping that perhaps you’ve reached the wrong island by

mistake. Surely, this is not the island destined to be the first true settlement

in the New World? Surely, this is not Roanoke?

As you step ashore, your worst fears are confirmed. Pots and other

artifacts lay unused on the ground and the shelters show signs of neglect.

Footprints and other marks are scattered about as well, but their makers are

nowhere in sight. The colonists of Roanoke have vanished.

For over four hundred years, the fate of the lost colonists of

Roanoke has remained a mystery. While there are many theories to date

concerning what became of them, the most prevalent and well-supported

theory argues that the colonists were assimilated into the indigenous

tribes of North Carolina (Kupperman, 1984, 1985; Miller, 2002; Oberg,

1994; Quinn, 1985). If that is true, then the lost colonists of Roanoke

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 3

APA Research Paper: The Body As you review the body of this paper, read the side notes and examine how the writer uses and documents her sources.

A running head and page number top each page.

The title is centered one inch from the top, and the paper is double- spaced.

After referencing multiple sources, the writer provides a narrative to put the main point in context.

The introduction focuses on the research question, suggests an answer, and forecasts a method for finding the answer.

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may be “found” in their suspected descendants: the Lumbee People of

North Carolina. By examining the historical, genetic, and linguistic

evidence concerning the origins of the Lumbee, we might yet shed light

on one of history’s greatest mysteries.

Who Are the Lumbee People?

A single tribe of over 50,000 individuals constitutes the Lumbee

People, who currently live in Robeson County, North Carolina (Blu,

1980; Bryant & LaFromboise, 2005; Tobert, 2001). Historical records

indicate that the Lumbee have been living near Robeson County’s

Lumber River since the early 1700s, taking their tribal name from this

body of water (Blu, 1980; Bryant & LaFromboise, 2005; Tobert, 2001).

Many studies of the Lumbee characterize them as an eclectic tribe

because their culture and biology have been highly inf luenced by non-

native groups with whom the tribe has admixed (Blu, 1980; Bryant &

LaFromboise, 2005; Tobert, 2001). For example, unlike most traditional

tribes, the Lumbee are followers of the Southern Baptist faith. They also

speak a dialect often referred to as a “variety of English,” and many do

not know their tribe’s native language, which is Siouan in origin (Blu,

1980; Bryant & LaFromboise, 2005; Tobert, 2001). Additionally, many of

the Lumbee exhibit physical characteristics such as blond hair and blue

eyes (Blu, 1980; Bryant & LaFromboise, 2005).

How could this admixture have happened? Traditionally, most

Native American groups have not been known to admix with outside

parties. Indeed, the federal government discourages it by denying

benefits to those who practice admixture (Blu, 1980; Bryant &

LaFromboise, 2005). However, the Lumbee People are not alone in this

respect. Other Native American tribes have also mixed with outsiders.

Admixture and Native American Groups:

The Catawba Indian Example

The Catawba Indians were a group of Native Americans living just

outside Rock Hill, South Carolina. As Pollitzer et al. explain (1967),

in 1962 the Catawba opted to terminate their reservation status, thus

relinquishing all forms of federal recognition. Apparently, reservation

life no longer met the needs of their newly acquired Mormon lifestyle.

Around the same time, the Catawba allowed outside parties to study

their blood types. Over 100 Catawba were typed for the ABO blood

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 4

The first section offers essential background for the mystery.

In-text citations list the multiple sources for the background information. Dates are featured.

The writer introduces a key concept (admixture) and then explores its relevance.

An attributive phrase for a source is followed by the publication year in parentheses. “Et al.” indicates several authors.

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Documentation and Format Styles550

groups. Physical features such as stature, cephalic index, facial index, and

nasal index were also measured, and the data were studied in an attempt

to better understand their current genetic composition. In other words,

Pollitzer et al. conducted a study to see whether modern-day Catawba

Indians were biologically more “white” or “Native American.”

Despite centuries of admixing, a modern Catawba Indian was

found to be, on average, 50% white and 50% Native American in genetic

composition (Pollitzer et al., 1967). The results of the study surprised

many who expected the percentage of white genetic attributes to be

much higher (Pollitzer et al., 1967). Like the Lumbee, the Catawba were a

nontraditional tribe. They practiced a non-native religion (Mormonism),

abandoned their original Siouan dialect, and exhibited physical features

that made some of them indistinguishable from Caucasians. Yet genetic

data indicated they were still 50% Native American (Pollitzer et al., 1967).

The example of the Catawba Indians highlights the dangers of

rushing to conclusions about a group’s origins and biology based

solely on their culture or physical features. The origins and biology of

the Lumbee People cannot be studied, therefore, by merely observing

modern-day members and associating them with whatever group they

most closely resemble culturally and physically. To understand who the

Lumbee People are today and from whom they came, we must go back to

the beginning. We must go back to Roanoke.

A Mystery in History: The Story of the Lost Colony of Roanoke

Toward the end of the sixteenth century, Europeans had begun to

set up the first permanent settlements in the New World (Kupperman,

1984, 1985; Miller, 2002; Oberg, 1994; Quinn, 1985). One participant

was none other than Sir Walter Raleigh, the explorer after whom the

capital of North Carolina is named. Raleigh had high hopes for the New

World and, in June 1578, he was granted a patent by Queen Elizabeth I to

explore and colonize North America. The patent would expire ten years

after its issuance; thus, Raleigh had to move quickly. For the next nine

years, Raleigh sent ships to and from the New World in search of a good

spot to found the first settlement (Kupperman, 1984, 1985; Miller, 2002;

Oberg, 1994; Quinn, 1985).

As Kupperman (1984, 1985), Miller (2002), Oberg (1994), and

Quinn (1985) go on to explain, one particular expedition, launched

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 5

The writer offers conclusions about the genetic evidence, relating her illustration to her specific topic.

With the last sentence and the new heading, the writer makes a transition to the second part of the mystery.

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in 1584, located a small island off the coast of North Carolina by

mistake, after its ship struck a shoal in the sea. The island was later

called Roanoke Island. As a result of damage to their ship, the crew of

about 100 men was forced to remain on the island, and a fort and other

structures were erected as shelters. When a relief ship arrived to rescue

the crew, 15 men stayed behind to protect Raleigh’s claim to the New

World.

In 1587, with time running short, it was hastily agreed that the new

settlement would be founded at Chesapeake Bay, Virginia (Kupperman,

1984, 1985; Miller, 2002; Oberg, 1994; Quinn, 1985). In July of that same

year, a group of 117 men, women, and children embarked for the New

World led by the Portuguese navigator Simon Fernandes. In addition

to colonizing Chesapeake Bay, the colonists were given instructions to

stop by Roanoke Island and retrieve the 15 volunteers from the previous

expedition.

When the party arrived, however, on July 22, 1587, they found that

all 15 men had vanished. It was later determined that the volunteer party

had sailed back to England after losing six members during an Indian

attack. Despite this discouraging news, the colonists persisted with their

plan to found the first new settlement. Unfortunately, for reasons still

not clearly understood, Fernandes was unable to deliver the colonists

to Chesapeake Bay, and word reached England that the first settlement

had been founded on Roanoke Island instead (Kupperman, 1984, 1985;

Miller, 2002; Oberg, 1994; Quinn, 1985).

During August 1587, the colony’s governor, John White, was forced

to return to England to obtain more supplies. As Kupperman, Miller,

Oberg, and Quinn explain, the trip was supposed to take no more

than three months, but the arrival of the Spanish Armada prevented

White from obtaining a ship for the journey back to Roanoke for three

more years. In 1590, when White finally did return, he experienced a

horrible fright: All 115 of the original colonists had vanished. Roanoke

Island held nothing more than several unused pots and a few scattered

footprints.

Why would the colonists leave Roanoke? Why risk crossing paths with

mainland natives, given what happened to the 15 volunteers who had f led

before? And most importantly for our purposes, is there any evidence that

they made contact with the indigenous groups of North Carolina?

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 6

Referencing multiple sources in attributive phrases and parenthetical citations, the writer provides extensive background on the Roanoke mystery.

A series of questions links the two mysteries of the Lumbee and the Roanoke colonists.

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Why Leave Roanoke?

Recently, scientists from the University of Arkansas and the College

of William and Mary discovered several individuals currently living in

North Carolina whose roots go back to Roanoke (Stahle et al., 1998).

According to Stahle et al., these individuals have been living in the

region since the colonists first landed in 1587, and therefore might well

be the only living “witnesses” to what occurred (1998).

Who are these “witnesses”? The ancient baldcypress trees (Taxodium

distichum) of North Carolina.

As Stahle et al. explain, most trees generate a single ring within

their trunks each time a year passes. By counting the rings in a cross

section of a tree’s trunk, one can determine the age of the tree (1998).

Doing so, Stahle et al. confirmed that the baldcypresses were present

during the time of Roanoke. Yet tree rings can also provide information

on environmental conditions. For example, adequate water available

throughout the year results in a wider ring, whereas during a drought

the annual ring will be significantly narrower (Stahle et al., 1998). Tree

ring data collected from the baldcypress trees of North Carolina suggests

that the period between 1587 and 1589 was one of the driest in the area

in 800 years (Stahle et al., 1998). Such a severe drought probably led to

poor health and poor crop quality on Roanoke Island, thus forcing the

colonists to move to the mainland in search of food (Stahle et al., 1998).

Yet the question remains: Do we have any evidence of early contact

between colonists and Native Americans?

Crossing Paths: Early Evidence of Contact Between

the Lost Colonists of Roanoke and Indigenous Peoples

As it turns out, historical records indicate that the lost colonists of

Roanoke may have been harboring a dangerous virus: inf luenza. Mainly

affecting the lungs, the inf luenza virus can easily be spread by simply

coming in contact with infected individuals (Mires, 1994). Historians

and biologists agree that the New World was free of the virus until the

arrival of Europeans during the late sixteenth century (Mires, 1994).

In fact, recent documents found by archaeologists from the University

of Minnesota indicate that an outbreak of inf luenza occurred on the

mainland of North Carolina at about the same time we speculate the

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 7

Using a heading in the form of a question, the writer explores evidence explaining one part of the mystery.

The writer adds to her overall argument by exploring another form of evidence related to illness and its effects.

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colonists left Roanoke Island (Mires, 1994). If the inf luenza virus was

not present in the New World before the arrival of Europeans, and the

only Europeans present in the area during the outbreak were those who

arrived with the Roanoke expedition, then it is highly probable that the

lost colonists of Roanoke made contact with the indigenous groups of

North Carolina and served as vectors for inf luenza (Mires, 1994).

That being said, we must now turn to a different question, one that

has remained unanswered for over four hundred years: What happened

to those lost colonists?

Tracing Tribes:

A Theory of What Happened to the Lost Colonists

As Kupperman (1984, 1985), Miller (2002), Oberg (1994), and

Quinn (1985) all relate, centuries ago a group of natives known as the

Eno inhabited North Carolina’s wilderness. Archaeological evidence

indicates that the Eno were a copper-mining people whose culture

centered on this metal. For example, numerous copper ornaments have

been found at Eno sites dating back to the sixteenth century, ornaments

probably used to decorate Eno houses. As a Siouan-speaking tribe, the

Eno were allied with the Occaneechi and other less well-defined Siouan

groups dispersed throughout North Carolina. Historical records also

suggest that the Eno participated in a slave trading market open to their

fellow Siouan allies.

Yet historians believe the Eno’s copper-based lifestyle was threatened

after they lost several tribe members to an inf luenza epidemic in the late

sixteenth century (Kupperman, 1984, 1985; Miller, 2002; Oberg, 1994;

Quinn, 1985). Copper mining is not easy, requiring strong individuals to

extract the metal sheets from rock formations. Kupperman, Oberg, Miller,

and Quinn hypothesize that the Eno captured all 115 of the lost colonists,

keeping the men to work the copper mines and selling the women and

children to other Siouan-speaking groups involved in the slave market.

Indeed, these other Siouan tribes would have been eager to obtain the

lost women and children from Roanoke because their numbers would

also have been reduced by the recent inf luenza epidemic. Eventually, the

Roanoke women and children would have been assimilated into these

other Siouan-speaking tribes (Kupperman, 1984, 1985; Miller, 2002;

Oberg, 1994; Quinn, 1985).

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 8

Building on the discussion of illness in the previous section, the writer explores evidence for the impact of European- borne illness on indigenous people.

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All of this begs the question as to whether the Lumbee Pople are

descendants of the lost colonists of Roanoke. Answering that question

requires that we look not only at the historical evidence but also at the

genetic and linguistic evidence.

Are the Lumbee People Descendants

of the Lost Colonists of Roanoke?

Historical Clues

Unfortunately, seventeenth-century tribal records for the Eno, the

Occaneechi, and the other Siouan-speaking groups of North Carolina are

scarce, so these groups cannot be traced directly to the Lumbee People

(Kupperman, 1984, 1985; Miller, 2002; Oberg, 1994; Quinn, 1985).

However, a document dated 1725 does identify four Siouan-speaking

groups living near a river called the “Drowning River” in North Carolina

(Blu, 1980). Today, the “Drowning River” is known as the “Lumber

River,” and tribal records for the Lumbee, which begin in the 1700s,

show that the four Siouan-speaking groups are, in fact, the earliest

documented ancestors of the Lumbee People (Blu, 1980).

Genetic Clues

During the late 1970s, the Lumbee People were typed for the human

leukocyte antigen (HLA) system in an attempt by Grier, Ruderman, and

Johnson (1979) to create an HLA profile for the tribe. The HLA system is a

group of genes that codes for antigens on the surfaces of cells and is part of

a complex known as the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC).

Scientists use the prefix “HLA” followed by a letter and a number to identify

the allele and HLA locus that is being studied (Grier et al., 1979).

Researchers note that most Native American groups have a high

frequency of HLA-B40 (Grier et al., 1979). However, Grier et al. (1979)

found that the Lumbee People have an unusually low frequency of HLA-

B40. This fact, along with other inconsistencies in the Lumbee HLA

profile, indicate that admixture, specifically with European groups, has

affected the current genetic composition of the Lumbee (Grier et al.,

1979).

Linguistic Clues

Although they originated in part from a Siouan-speaking tribe,

modern Lumbee People speak a modified form of English (Torbert,

2001). A linguistic study conducted by Benjamin Torbert from Duke

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 9

Using a new heading and a series of subheadings, the writer explores multiple forms of evidence to test her hypothesis.

The writer effectively draws on multiple sources for various types of evidence and reasoning.

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Chapter 32 APA Documentation Format 555

University included a consonant cluster analysis of Lumbee speech. A

consonant cluster is a group of consonants not separated by a vowel. For

example, in the word “spring,” the “spr-” group would be classified as a

consonant cluster (Tobert, 2001).

Torbert compared the Lumbee dialect with that of other Native

American groups in the region and found that, unlike most Native

American tribes in North Carolina, the Lumbee speak a dialect that is

saturated with consonant clusters. Thus, ancestors of the Lumbee People

seem to have adopted consonant clusters after mixing with the lost

colonists of Roanoke—whose own language, like that of most Europeans,

included the frequent use of consonant clusters (Torbert, 2001).

Lumbee Origins and the Study of Human Variation:

Ethnicity versus Biological Origins

Unfortunately, we may never know for certain what became of the

lost colonists of Roanoke. However, we do know that some evidence

suggests that the Lumbee People of North Carolina may be their

modern-day descendants. As a result, the Lumbee People currently face

a dilemma regarding the issue of racial classification (Blu, 1980; Bryant

& LaFromboise, 2005). Unlike most native peoples in the United States,

the Lumbee People have never been placed on a reservation, and thus

have never been federally recognized as a Native American Group (Blu,

1980; Bryant & LaFromboise, 2005). They do not receive the same federal

benefits as other indigenous groups in the country, a fact ref lected in

their poor health and living standards (Beltrane & McQueen, 1979;

Bryant et al., 2004; Humphrey & Kupper, 1982). Simply put, they are

a people with a confused identity (Blu, 1980; Bryant & LaFromboise,

2005). The Lumbee believe that they are Native Americans and would

like to be considered as such, but the federal government has denied

their requests for federal recognition (Blu, 1980; Bryant & LaFromboise,

2005). Stating that the Lumbee have “too open an enrollment policy,” the

federal government cites centuries of admixture that have significantly

compromised the Lumbee identity as a tribe (Blu, 1980; Bryant &

LaFromboise, 2005).

Is the federal government correct to assert that the Lumbee are no

longer “Native Americans”? Recall that the Catawba Indians of South

Carolina were similar to the Lumbee People in that they, too, frequently

admixed throughout their history and did not look or act very Native

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 10

In the final section, the writer explores the relevance of the mystery the paper focuses on: the fate of the people involved.

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Reading for Better Writing

556

American anymore (Blu, 1980; Bryant & LaFromboise, 2005). Unlike the

Lumbee, however, the Catawba Indians were granted federal recognition

even before they proved, genetically, that they were still 50% Native

American (Pollitzer et al., 1967). Just how “Native American” does one

have to be?

Conclusion: Something Is Still Terribly Wrong

Steps should be taken to answer the question concerning the origins

of the Lumbee once and for all. The HLA profile study, conducted

during the late 1970s by Grier et al., for example, is the only genetic

study of the Lumbee to date. Modern mitochondrial DNA and possibly

Y-chromosome DNA studies should be completed to further clarify the

biological identity of the Lumbee tribe. At the same time, steps must

be taken to protect the Lumbee People’s ethnic identity. Recent cultural

studies point out the high occurrence of alcoholism and suicide among

the Lumbee as a result of their continuing identity crisis (Beltrane &

McQueen, 1979; Bryant et al., 2004; Humphrey & Kupper, 1982). Just

as John White found upon his belated return to the deserted colony

over four hundred years ago, something is terribly wrong. We must

ensure that the Lumbee People do not share the fate of the colonists who

disappeared from that infamous island off the coast of North Carolina,

the island of Roanoke.

Working by yourself or with a group, answer these questions.

1. Singh’s paper focuses on a historical mystery with current relevance. What strategies make her readers care about the mystery?

2. What types of evidence does Singh use in her paper? Where has she gotten her evidence? Are her resources reliable?

3. How does Singh document her research? How does she distinguish her own thinking from source material? Why are these strategies necessary?

4. Follow-up: More information on the Roanoke mystery and the Lumbee People is available at this book’s website, www.thecollegewriter.com/4e. After reviewing the resources at the site, offer your own response to the mystery: What do you conclude about what happened and how these developments should impact the current situation in North Carolina?

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 11

In the conclusion, the writer argues for additional research that will resolve the mystery and bring about justice.

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Chapter 32 APA Documentation Format 557

References

Beltrane, T., & McQueen, D. V. (1979). Urban and rural Indian drinking

patterns: The special case of the Lumbee. International Journal of the

Addictions, 14(4), 533-548.

Blu, K. I. (1980). The Lumbee problem: The making of an American Indian

people. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Bryant, A., Goins, R. T., Bell, R., Herrell, R., Manson, S. M., &

Buchwald, D. (2004). Health differences among Lumbee Indians

using public and private sources of care. Journal of Rural Health,

20(3), 231-236.

Bryant, A., & LaFromboise, T. D. (2005). The racial identity and cultural

orientation of Lumbee American Indian high school students.

Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11(1), 82-89.

Grier, J. O., Ruderman, R. J., & Johnson, A. H. (1979). HLA profile in

the Lumbee Indians of North Carolina. Transplant Proceedings,

11(4), 1767-1769.

Humphrey, J. A., & Kupper, H. J. (1982). Homicide and suicide

among the Cherokee and Lumbee Indians of North Carolina.

International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 28(2), 121-128. doi:

10.1177/002076408202800210

Kupperman, K. O. (1984). Roanoke, the abandoned colony. Totowa, NJ:

Rowman & Allanheld.

Kupperman, K. O. (1985). Roanoke lost. American Heritage, 36(5), 81-96.

Miller, L. (2002). Roanoke: Solving the mystery of the lost colony. New

York, NY: Penguin.

Mires, P. B. (1994). Contact and contagion: The Roanoke colony and

inf luenza. Historical Archaeology, 28(3), 30-38.

Molnar, S. (2002). Human variation: Races, types, and ethnic groups.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Oberg, M. L. (1994). Indians and Englishmen at the first Roanoke

colony: A note on Pemisapan’s conspiracy, 1585-86. American Indian

Culture & Research Journal, 18(2), 75-89.

OUR ROOTS GO BACK TO ROANOKE 12

Note: For the complete references list, go to www.thecollegewriter.com/4e.

All works referred to in the paper appear on the references page, listed alphabetically by author (or title).

Each entry follows APA guidelines for listing authors, dates, titles, and publishing information.

Capitalization, punctuation, and hanging indentation are consistent with APA format.

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Documentation and Format Styles

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities 1. To make sense of APA format rules, answer these questions by yourself or with

classmates: What is the essential logic of the APA system? How does this logic ref lect research practices and values in the Social Sciences?

2. Create references list entries in correct APA style for the following sources: ■ An article in the October 2001 issue (vol. 29, no. 2) of Learning & Leading with

Technology magazine by Bob Albrecht and Paul Davis titled “The Metric Backpack” (pages 29–31, 55)

■ The book The Playful World: How Technology Is Transforming Our Imagination, by Mark Pesce, published in 2000 by Ballantine Books, located in New York City

■ A webpage by Roger Fouts called “Frequently Asked Questions,” part of the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute site, sponsored by Central Washington University; no publication date; site accessed May 8, 2011, at http:// www.cwu.edu/~cwuchci/quanda.html.

Learning-Outcomes Checklist When you are completing a paper in APA format, use the checklist below to ensure that you are following the format correctly.

All borrowed material is acknowledged with an appropriate attributive phrase and/or in-text citation indicating author(s), publication date, and page number, as appropriate.

All in-text citations effectively point readers to resources in the references list or to personal communication not listed.

The references list includes entries for all works referred to in the body of the paper: No sources are missing from the list; no extra sources are listed that have no reference within the paper. Exception: Personal communications are identified with in-text citations but not in the references list.

The entire references list is properly alphabetized by authors’ last names (or by the first main word in the title for anonymous works).

Each references entry (whether for an article, a book, an online document, or other source) contains the maximum amount of identifying and publication information, in the proper order, using the accepted abbreviations.

The paper is properly formatted from the title page to any appendix.

558

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Ch 33: Marking Punctuation

Period
Ellipsis
Question Mark
Comma
Semicolon
Colon
Hyphen
Dash
Quotation Marks
Italics (Underlining)
Parentheses
Brackets
Apostrophe

vandermey15858_0495915858_02.34_chapter34.pdf

Ch 34: Checking Mechanics

Capitalization
Plurals
Numbers
Plurals and Numbers
Abbreviations
Acronyms and Initialisms
Basic Spelling Rules
Commonly Misspelled Words
Steps to Becoming a Better Speller