Order #403985 Topic: #3

tutorthammy

Very_important_notes__1_.pdf

Home >Political Science homework help >Order #403985 Topic: #3

3/28/19

Research Methods

CJI 706

Research Methods I

Dr. Marcelo Castro

Winter 2019

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

3/28/19

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

� An emphasis on collecting and analyzing information in the form of numbers

� An emphasis on collecting scores that measure distinct attributes of individuals and organizations

� An emphasis on the procedures of comparing groups or relating factors about individuals or groups in experiments, correlational studies, and surveys

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

� Naturalistic inquiry or constructivism � Consider the participant’s point of view � Describe participant’s view within a setting

or context

� Alternative perspective to traditional research

3/28/19

Definitions � Scientific method

� Problem

� Theory

� Hypothesis

� Variables

� Research Questions

The Scientific Method

� Steps: � Formulating a problem

� Reviewing background information

� Developing a hypothesis

� Designing an experiment (or investigation)

� Gathering data � Data analysis

� Revising the problem or hypothesis

3/28/19

Research Problem

� Kerlinger & Lee (2000): A research problem statement should meet 3 criteria:

� Relation between two or more variables

� Clearly stated in unambiguous terms

� Amenable to empirical evaluation

Theory � �A theory is a set of interrelated constructs

(concepts), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena� (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000)

� A good theory should explain and predict when appropriate

� It must be falsifiable! � In science, the falsification of a theory is not bad � Correcting the mistakes in a theory ultimately brings

us closer to scientific truth

3/28/19

Hypotheses

• Hypotheses are specific predictions (statements about the relationship between and among variables) made prior to the data collection

• Predicted relationship between two or more variables selected for investigation

• Statements of cause-effect between variables

• Stated in measurable terms

Null & Alternative Hypotheses � The Null hypothesis states that there is no

difference or relationship between groups or variables

� If you want to test whether a given treatment works, you begin by assuming that it doesn’t (null hypothesis)

� Only if the evidence shows that you are mistaken, that is, the evidence shows that it DOES work, then you will conclude that it does (alternative hypothesis)

� Think of mermaids as a null hypothesis

3/28/19

Research hypotheses: Types

• Null hypothesis – No change in the dependent variable – Example: There will be no significant difference in

instances of use of force between male and female rookie officers.

• Directional alternative hypothesis – Specifies the direction of the change in the

dependent variable the researcher predicts will take place

– Example: Males will be prone to registering more instances of use of force than female rookie officers.

Research Hypotheses: Types (cont�d) � Nondirectional alternative hypothesis � Does not specify the direction of the change in the

dependent variable � Example: There will be a difference in instances of use of

force between male and female rookie officers. � Does not specify which one will be higher. � Impacts one vs. two-tailed test of significance

3/28/19

Inductive and Deductive Approaches to Research

Deductive

Theory

Hypothesis

Observation

Confirmation of Theory

Inductive

Observation

Pattern

Hypothesis

Theory

Variables

� Aspects of an event that can be measured and manipulated

3/28/19

What Is a Variable? A Variable

(A Characteristic or Attribute)

That can be

and Measured

(Can be assessed on an instrument and recorded on an instrument)

Varies (Can assume

different values or scores for different

individuals)

Dependent Variable � The variable being described, caused, or

explained

� The measured effect of some cause

� Also known as explained, outcome or measured variable.

� Mnemonic rule: D-pendent=Data

3/28/19

Independent Variable � The variable doing the causing or explaining

� When manipulated by the investogator causes a change in the dependent variable

� Also known as predictor, manipulated or controlled variable

� Mnemonic rule: I-ndependent=I-ntervention

3/28/19

Writing research questions

Research Questions

� Reflect the problem that the researcher wants to investigate

� Are vitally important because they dictate the rest of the study.

� Must be stated in the form of a question.

� A research question should address only one concept.

3/28/19

Writing Quantitative Questions � Generally attempt to quantify variables of

interest; questions must be measureable.

� Questions frequently address �how well or how much.�

� Include the IV (first) and DV (second)

� “What is the relationship between graduate students’ level of interaction, measured by the number of “hits” in the course, and students� grades in an online research methods course?”

Types of QUAN Research Questions

� The choice of statistical technique depends largely on the research question and the hypotheses.

� Most research questions fall into one of three categories:

� Descriptive � Relationship or correlation

� Comparative

3/28/19

Descriptive Questions � Descriptive questions simply seek to quantify

responses on one or more variables.

� Examples: � What is the average score on a newly

developed mathematics test? � How engaged are higher education

administrators in their jobs? � What is the prevalence of street gangs in a

given target area? � What percentage of crime is “against

property”?

Relationship Questions

� Relationship questions seek to relate one or more variable(s) to another

� Examples: � Is there a relationship between education and

disciplinary actions in law enforcement officers? � Is there are relationship between participation in a

given early release program and recidivism? � Is there a relationship between student motivation

and academic achievement? � Is there a relationship between family gang

membership and future arrests?

3/28/19

Comparative Questions

� As the name implies, comparative questions seek to compare two or more groups on some outcome variable.

� Examples: � How do males and females differ with respect

to job related performance anxiety? � How does participation in a test preparation

course increase performance on the GRE? � What is the effect of participating in a

rehabilitation program on substance abuse?

Qualitative Research Questions

� Central question: The overarching question you explore in the research study � Sub-questions: Divide the central question into smaller,

specific questions; narrow the focus of the central question into specific issues

� Interview questions: Questions that are asked during your interview that are based on your sub-questions and central question (AKA, interview guide)

Creswell , J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research, (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

3/28/19

Writing Quantitative Research Questions � Consider three approaches to the variables for a question:

� Compare groups

� Relate variables

� Describe responses

� Specify questions based on theory, if possible.

� The research questions are based on the problem or area of need and on the research reviewed. The research questions should adhere to the following guidelines: � formation of question or questions based on theory, previous research (i.e., the

literature review), and experience; � stated in the form of a question; and � focused and clear (i.e., specific, feasible, and measurable)

Scripts for Writing Quantitative Research Questions

� Descriptive Question (Quantitative)—Use the following script: How frequently do (participants) (variable) at (research site)? Application: How frequently do African Americans feel isolated on college campuses?

� Relationship Question (Quantitative)—Script: How does (variable A) relate to (variable B) for (participants) at (research site)? Application: How do feelings of isolation relate to (or influence) the ethnic identity of African Americans in the United States?

� Comparison Question (Quantitative)—Script: How does (Group 1) differ from (Group 2) in terms of (dependent variable) for the (participants) at (research site)? Application: How do African Americans and Euro Americans compare in their perceptions of ethnic identity?

3/28/19

Writing Qualitative Questions

� �There are times we wish to know not how many or how well, but simply how�(Shulman, 1988).

� Example: � What are the factors that influence a graduate

students’ experience in an online research methods course?

� How do citizens in high-crime areas experience law enforcement presence in the area?

Qualitative Research Questions

� Qualitative researchers pose research questions. � Not objectives

� Not hypotheses

� Two types of qualitative research questions to focus a study's purpose: � Central question

� broad question that asks for exploration of the central phenomenon

� Sub-questions � Questions that narrow the focus of the study

3/28/19

Writing Qualitative Research Questions

� Ask 1 or 2 central questions and no more than 2 or 3 sub-questions.

� These questions should � relate the central question to the strategy of inquiry � begin with what or how � focus on a single phenomenon or concept � use exploratory verbs like discover or describe � avoid directional words such as affect or impact � evolve during the study � be open-ended without reference to the literature � specify the participants and research site (unless stated

previously)

A Script for Writing a Qualitative Central Question

� (How or What) is the (“story for” for narrative research; “meaning of” the phenomenon for phenomenology; “theory that explains the process of ” for grounded theory; “culture- sharing pattern” for ethnography; “issue” in the “case” for case study) of (central phenomenon) for (participants) at (research site).

3/28/19

Practice Writing Research Questions

� Descriptive: How frequently do (participants) (variable) at (research site)?

� Relationship: How does (predictor variable) relate to (criterion variable) for (participants) at (research site)?

� Comparative: How does (Group 1) differ from (Group 2) in terms of (DV) for (participants) at (research site)?

� Qualitative: What is (central phenomenon) for (participants) at (research site)?

Creswell , J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research, (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Ethics in Research Regulations Involving Humans in Research

3/28/19

Historical Background

• The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research was founded in response to the discovery of unethical and harmful research being conducted in the United States.

• In 1979, the Commission produced the Belmont Report which established three ethical guidelines for the protection of human subjects.

Belmont report principles

• Respect for persons: treating persons as autonomous agents and protecting those with diminished autonomy

• Beneficence: minimizing possible harm and maximizing benefits

• Justice: distributing benefits and risks of research fairly

3/28/19

The Institutional Review Board (IRB)

� Federal regulations require that every institution that seeks federal funding for biomedical or behavioral research have an IRB

� An IRB�s purpose is to review research proposals to ensure that studies are conducted ethically

� Federal regulations require that IRB�s be comprised of members with diverse backgrounds.

Ethical Principles

� Achieving Valid Results

� Honesty and Openness

� Protecting Research Participants

3/28/19

Achieving Valid Results

� Research serves no purpose if valid results are not obtained

� Researchers must be as objective as possible, free from prejudice and bias

� Research that seeks to validate our own prejudices is not valid or ethical

Honesty and Openness � Researchers who publically and honestly

report their research methods are less vulnerable to political or personal pressure to distort the result of their study.

� Publication is vital to this concern as it allows others through the peer review process to evaluate the appropriateness of research methods.

� http://retractionwatch.com

http://retractionwatch.com/

3/28/19

Protecting Research Participants � No harm to subjects

� Physical or psychological � Measures to reduce/address potential harm

� Voluntary participation by subjects � No coercion regarding participation � Inform participant of nature of study � Obtain their informed consent to be in study

� Guarantee anonymity and/or confidentiality � Anonymous = identity of subject is unknown � Confidential = identity of subject is known but not revealed to

anyone outside the study � Subject must specifically waive confidentiality

� Benefits should outweigh foreseeable risks