sociology

Education is a vast and complex social institution that prepares citizens for roles demanded by other social institutions, such as the family, government, and economy.

Sociological Perspectives on Education 2

Figure 13-1: Anticipated Higher Education Graduation Rates (B A/B S), Selected Countries

Note: For adults ages 25 to 64 in 2015. The percentages are estimates of the eventual proportion of the entire adult population that will attain at least a college degree, given current students’ rate of degree completion.

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Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2017b. “Graduation Rate, Indicator.” 2017. Flags: ©admin_design/Shutterstock

Functionalist Perspective 1

Manifest and latent functions of education

Transmission of knowledge (manifest).

Bestowal of status (manifest).

Transmitting culture (latent).

Promoting social and political integration (latent).

Maintaining social control (latent).

Agent of change (latent).

Functionalist Perspective 2

Transmitting Culture

Schools expose each generation of young people to the existing beliefs, norms, and values of their culture.

All governments shape culture through education.

Functionalist Perspective 3

Promoting Social and Political Integration

Schools help transform a diverse social population into members who, to some extent, share a common identity.

In the past, promoting a common language was an obvious integrative function.

Functionalist Perspective 4

Maintaining Social Control

Schools teach students punctuality, discipline, scheduling, responsible work habits, and how to negotiate complexities of a bureaucratic organization.

Schools direct and restrict students’ aspirations that reflect societal values and prejudices.

Functionalist Perspective 5

Serving as an Agent of Change

Best indicator of a person’s lifetime earnings is still number of years of formal schooling that person has received.

Formal schooling also associated with openness to new ideas and liberal social and political viewpoints

Functionalist Perspective 6

Figure 13-2: Lifetime Earnings by Race, Gender, and Degree Level

Note: Estimates for lifetime earnings for full-time, year-round workers ages 25 to 64 based on the American Community Survey for 2006 to 2008. Data are for Hispanics, non-Hispanic whites, blacks, and Asian Americans. Data points shown in thousands of dollars.

Source: Julian and Kominski 2011:6.

Conflict Perspective 1

Conflict theorists point out the inequalities that exist in educational opportunities available to different racial and ethnic groups.

Schools are still characterized by racial isolation.

15 percent of black and 14 percent of Latino students attend schools where whites make up less than 1 percent of enrollment (“apartheid schools”).

Schools socialize students into values dictated by the powerful.

Conflict Perspective 2

The Hidden Curriculum

Hidden curriculum: refers to standards of behavior that are deemed proper by society and are taught subtly in schools

Don’t speak until spoken to by teachers.

Regulated activities.

Learn individually, not help others.

Habitual obedience to authority.

Marginalization of nonheterosexual relationships in sex and relationship education.

Conflict Perspective 3

Credentialism

Credentialism: an increase in the lowest level of education needed to enter a field

Employers may raise the degree requirements for positions because all applicants already have achieved the existing minimum credentials.

Educational institutions profit from these practices.

Conflict Perspective 4

Bestowal of Status

Schools sort students based on social class backgrounds.

Schools deny most disadvantaged children the same educational opportunities afforded to affluent children.

Getting more expensive over the years to obtain a higher education.

Tracking: practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups based on test scores and other criteria

Conflict Perspective 5

Bestowal of Status

Students in academic tracks receive higher quality education than those in the nonacademic tracks.

Correspondence principle: schools promote the values expected of individuals in each social class and perpetuate social class divisions from one generation to the next

Conflict Perspective 6

Figure 13-3: Costs of Tuition, Room, and Board, 19 63 to 2016

Note: Community college data exclude private colleges. Private 4-year college data exclude for-profit colleges.

Source: National Center for Education Statistics. Digest of Education 2018, Table 330:10.

Feminist Perspective 1

Sexism seen in many facets of education

Stereotypes in textbooks.

Pressure on women to study traditional women’s subjects.

Unequal funding for athletics.

Bias in employment of teachers.

Women now outnumber men in college commencements.

Women’s education plays significant role in a nation’s economic development.

Sociology on Campus

The Debate over Title IX

Has Title IX had an effect on you personally? If so, explain. On balance, do you think the increase in women’s participation in sports has been good for society as a whole?

How might Title IX affect the way students and the public view gender roles?

Interactionist Perspective

Labeling approach suggests if people treated in particular ways, they may fulfill expectations

Teacher-expectancy effect: the impact of teacher expectations about a student on student’s actual achievements

Especially evident in lower grades.

Expectations can even impact a student’s athletic achievements.

Tracking Sociological Perspectives

Table 13-1: Sociological Perspectives on Education

Theoretical Perspective	Emphasis
Functionalist	Transmission of the dominant culture Integration of society Promotion of social norms, values, and sanctions Promotion of desirable social change
Conflict	Domination by the elite through unequal access to schooling Hidden curriculum Credentialism Bestowal of status
Interactionist	Teacher-expectancy effect
Feminist	Treatment of female students Role of women’s education in economic development

Schools as Formal Organizations

The number of students in schools has grown from 5 million in 19 31 to 15 million today.

Schools are influenced by the market of potential students.

Bureaucratization of Schools 1

Weber’s characteristics of bureaucracies apply to schools

Division of labor: use of specialized experts to teach.

Hierarchy of authority: each school employee is responsible to a higher authority.

Written rules and regulations: teachers and administrators conform to rules and regulations as part of their duties.

Impersonality: as class sizes have grown, teachers have more difficulty giving personal attention to students.

Employment based on technical qualifications: hiring of instructors based on professional competence and expertise (at least in theory).

Bureaucratization of Schools 2

Conflict theorists argue that more centralization of education will have harmful consequences for the disadvantaged people.

Standardization of educational curricula reflects the values, interests, and lifestyles of the most powerful groups.

Disadvantaged have more difficulties dealing with complex educational bureaucracies.

Disadvantaged groups have more problems organizing effective lobbying groups and have less influence over administrators.

Taking Sociology to Work

Have you, like Diane Belcher Gray, realized through education that something you were doing without thinking about it has helped to prepare you for employment? Explain.

Do some research on Dublin, Virginia, and the surrounding area. What kind of economy does this community have? Relate the layoffs the community has been experiencing to larger societal forces.

Teachers: Employees and Instructors 1

Inherent conflict in serving as a professional in a bureaucracy

Organization follows principles and expects adherence to rules.

Professionalism demands individual responsibility of practitioners.

Conflicts arise for teachers because they have to serve as an instructor, disciplinarian, and employee at the same time.

15 percent of new teachers quit within the first 3 years.

As many as half leave poor urban schools in the first 5 years.

Teachers: Employees and Instructors 2

Number of first year college students interested in teaching has significantly dropped since the 19 60s.

In 2015 to 2016, the average salary for all public elementary and secondary school teachers was $58,353.

Salaries vary widely by both state and school district.

Teachers: Employees and Instructors 3

Figure 13-4: Average Salary for Teachers

The national average salary was $58,353. State averages ranged from $42,025 in South Dakota to $79,190 in the New York. Note: Data released in 2017 for 2015 to 2016.

Source: National Education Association. Rankings and Estimates. Rankings of the States 2016 and Estimated of School Statistics 2017. May 2017.

Student Subcultures 1

The informal aspects of the educational system do not exist independently of the schools’ educational functions.

Informal social systems can be important in determining students’ positive and negative outcomes.

Student cliques and social groups can be formed based on a variety of demographic and social factors (For example: race, gender, sexual orientation, leadership roles).

Student Subcultures 2

Students in groups centered on sexual orientation can be very vulnerable.

Peer pressure is intense.

Schools are creating gay-straight alliances (G S As).

Student Subcultures 3

Four distinctive subcultures among college students

Collegiate: focuses on having fun and socializing.

Academic: identifies with the intellectual concerns of the faculty and values knowledge.

Vocational: interested primarily in career prospects.

Nonconformist: hostile to the college environment and seeks ideas that may or may not be related to academic studies.

Student Subcultures 4

Figure 13-5: College Campuses By Race and Ethnicity: Then, Now, and in the Future

Note: Percentages do not add to 100 due to rounding error. Nonresident aliens whose race/ethnicity is unknown are excluded. White and black racial categories include non-Hispanic only.

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Source: Hussar, William J., and Tabitha M. Bailey. Projections of Education Statistics to 2019. Washington, D C: National Center for Education Statistics, 2011, Table 29.

Homeschooling 1

About 1.7 million kids are homeschooled.

Equals approximately 3 percent of the K–12 population

Reasons for homeschooling

Poor academic quality in schools.

Peer pressure.

School violence.

Ease of cultural transition for immigrant children.

Homeschooling 2

Criticisms of homeschooling

Isolation from larger community.

Lose chances to improve social skills.

Quality control issues.

Durkheim and the Sociological Approach to Religion 1

Durkheim was the first sociologist to recognize the importance of religion in human societies.

Religion: a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things

Sacred: encompasses elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear

Durkheim and the Sociological Approach to Religion 2

Profane: the ordinary and commonplace

Some objects can be sacred and profane, depending on how they are viewed.

Contemporary sociologists study religion in two ways

Study the norms and values of religious faith by examining substantive beliefs.

Examine religion in terms of the social functions it fulfills.

World Religions 1

About 84 percent of world’s population adheres to some religion.

Christianity is the largest single faith; Islam is the second largest.

Islam projected to grow faster than any other major world religious group

World Religions 2

Followers of Islam are called Muslims.

Islam’s holy scriptures received from Allah by the prophet Mohammad.

More communal than Christianity in its expression.

Muslims vary sharply in their interpretation of several traditions.

World Religions 3

Judaism is a monotheistic religion.

God’s true nature revealed in the Torah.

Relatively small following compared to other major faiths.

Forms the historical foundation for both Christianity and Islam.

Hinduism is a major faith in India.

Embraces a number of gods and minor gods.

Most worshippers devoted to only one god.

Belief in reincarnation.

World Religions 4

Buddhism is a major faith in parts of Asia.

Founded on the teachings of Siddhartha (later called Buddha).

Meditation used to overcome selfish cravings for physical and material pleasures.

Goal is to reach a state of enlightenment (nirvana).

Originally formed in India, but followers were driven out by Hindus.

World Religions 5

Table 13-2: Major World Religions

Faith	Current Following, in Millions (and Percentage of Worldwide Population)	Primary Location of Followers Today	Founder (and Approximate Birth Date)	Important Texts (and Holy Sites)
Buddhism	516 (6.9%)	Southeast Asia, Mongolia, Tibet	Gautama Siddhartha (563 B.C.)	Triptaka (areas in Nepal)
Christianity	2,276 (31.2%)	Europe, North America, South America	Jesus (6 B.C.)	Bible (Jerusalem, Rome)
Hinduism	975 (15.1%)	India, Indian communities overseas	No specific founder (1500 B.C.)	Sruti and Smrti texts (seven sacred cities, including Vavansi)
Islam	1,753 (24.1%)	Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Indonesia	Mohammad (A.D. 570)	Qur’an or Koran (Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem)
Judaism	14 (0.2%)	Israel, United States, France, Russia	Abraham (2000 B.C.)	Torah, Talmud (Jerusalem)

Sources: Pew Research Center 2017b; Swatos 19 98. Data as of 2017.

World Religions 6

Figure 13-6: Projected Change in Global Religious Affiliation 2015 to 2060

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Source: Pew Research Center 2017b. The Changing Global Religious Landscape. April 5, 2017.

Sociological Perspectives on Religion

Manifest functions of religion

Defines the spiritual world.

Gives meaning to the divine.

Provides an explanation for events that are difficult to understand.

Latent functions of religion

Meeting ground for unmarried members.

The Integrative Function of Religion 1

Durkheim viewed religion as an integrative force in human society.

Gives meaning and purpose to lives.

Offers ultimate values and ends to hold in common.

Strengthens social integration.

Integrative power seen in work with immigrant groups

Increase in the number of Islamic places of worship in the United States.

The Integrative Function of Religion 2

Religious loyalties can be dysfunctional.

Contribute to tensions and conflicts between groups or nations.

Nations torn apart by clashes largely based on religion.

Religion and Social Support

Emphasis on divine and supernatural allows us to “do something” about calamities we face

Encourages people to view personal misfortunes as relatively unimportant in broader perspective (“God’s will”).

No divine answer to why one person lives a long life and another dies tragically at a relatively early age.

Religion and Social Change 1

The Weberian Thesis

Protestant ethic: a disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concerns, and a rational orientation for life

“Spirit of capitalism” emerged as generalized cultural trait.

Collective nature of religion has consequences for society as a whole.

Protestant ethic was an important factor in the growth of capitalism from 1500 to 18 70.

Religion and Social Change 2

The Weberian Thesis

The ”spirit of capitalism” has emerged as a generalized cultural trait and not a specific religious tenet.

Conflict theorists say Weber’s theory cannot be regarded as an analysis of mature capitalism.

Religion and Social Change 3

Liberation Theology

Liberation theology: the use of a church in a political effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice from secular society

Activists say religion has a moral responsibility to take a stand against the oppression of the poor, racial and ethnic minorities, and women.

May be dysfunctional, drawing clergy away from personal and spiritual needs

Religion and Social Control: A Conflict Perspective

Marx said religion impeded social change.

Focus on otherworldly concerns draws attention from poverty and exploitation.

Opiate that is harmful to the oppressed.

Religion’s promotion of social stability only helps perpetuate patterns of social inequality.

By inducing a “false consciousness” among disadvantaged, religion lessens the possibility of collective political action.

Feminist Perspective 2

Theorists have stressed fundamental role women play in religious socialization

Women generally take subordinate role in religious governance.

Women play vital role as volunteers, staff, and educators.

Women compose 17.6 percent of U.S. clergy but account for 34 percent of students enrolled in theological institutions.

About 4 percent of Roman Catholic congregations are led by women who hold nonordained pastoral positions.

Perspectives on Religion

Table 13-3: Sociological Perspectives on Religion

Theoretical Perspective	Emphasis
Functionalist	Religion as a source of social integration and unification Religion as a source of social support for individuals
Conflict	Religion as a potential obstacle to structural social change Religion as a potential source of structural social change (through liberation theology)
Feminist	Religion as an instrument of women’s subordination, except for their role in religious socialization
Interactionist	Individual religious expression through belief, ritual, and experience

Components of Religion

All religions have certain elements in common, expressed in distinctive manners of each faith

Religious beliefs.

Religious rituals.

Religious experience.

Belief

Religious beliefs: statements to which members of a particular religion adhere

Fundamentalism: emphasizes doctrinal conformity and the literal interpretation of sacred texts

Found worldwide among all major religious groups.

Fundamentalists vary immensely in their behavior.

Spirituality not as strong in industrialized nations as in developing nations

Ritual

Religious rituals: practices required or expected of members of a faith

Usually honor the divine power worshipped by believers.

Rituals can be simple (saying grace) to elaborate (canonizing a saint).

For Muslims, the hajj is a very important ritual.

In recent decades, participation in religious rituals has tended to hold steady or decline in most countries.

Religious Participation

Figure 13-7: Religious Participation in Selected Countries

Note: Data are from attendance patterns between 2011 to 2014.

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Experience

Religious experience: the feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality, such as a divine being, or of being overcome with religious emotion

Being born again is a profound experience for many Christians.

Religious Components

Table 13-4: Components of Religion

Element	Definition	Examples
Belief	Statement to which members of a particular religion adhere	Creation account Sacred characters or people
Ritual	Practice required or expected of members of a faith	Worship Prayer Singing or chanting
Experience	Feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate reality (such as a divine being) or of being overcome with religious emotion	Born-again experience Communion with Holy Spirit

Religious Organization

In modern societies, religion has become increasingly formalized.

Specific structures have been constructed.

Individuals trained for occupational roles.

Four basic forms of organization

Ecclesiae.

Denominations.

Sect.

New Religious Movement or Cults.

Ecclesiae

Ecclesia: a religious organization that claims to include most or all members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion

Membership is by birth.

Examples include Islam in Saudi Arabia and Buddhism in Thailand.

Generally, ecclesiae are conservative.

Political and religious institutions often act in harmony.

Denominations

Denomination: a large, organized religion that is not officially linked to the state or government

Tends to have an explicit set of beliefs.

Defined system of authority.

Generally respected position in society.

Lacks the official recognition and power held by an ecclesia.

Roman Catholicism is the largest denomination in the United States.

Sects

Sect: a relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of the faith

Fundamentally at odds with society.

Do not seek to become established national religions.

Require intensive commitments and demonstrations of beliefs.

Often short-lived.

Established sect: a religious group that is the outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from society

Examples include Hutterites and Jehovah’s Witnesses.

New Religious Movements or Cults

New religious movement: also known as a cult. Generally a small, secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith

Difficult to differentiate from sects.

Often viewed as less respectable than more established faiths.

May be transformed over time into other types of religious organization.

Most major religions began as cults, including Christianity.

Comparing Forms of Religious Organization 1

Ecclesiae, denominations, and sects are best viewed as types along a continuum rather than mutually exclusive categories.

From individual perspective, religion and spirituality are remarkably fluid

The rise of the electronic church.

Growth of Internet may contribute to number of unaffiliated adults.

New media can transform the ways in which religious faiths socially interact.

Comparing Forms of Religious Organization 2

Table 13-2: Characteristics of Ecclesiae, Denominations, Sects, and New Religious Movements

Characteristic	Ecclesia	Denomination	Sect	New Religious Movement (or Cult)
Size	Very large	Large	Small	Small
Wealth	Extensive	Extensive	Limited	Variable
Religious services	Formal, little participation	Formal, little participation	Informal, emotional	Variable
Doctrines	Specific, but interpretation may be tolerated	Specific, but interpretation may be tolerated	Specific, purity of doctrine emphasized	Innovative, pathbreaking
Clergy	Well-trained, full-time	Well-trained, full-time	Trained to some degree	Unspecialized
Membership	By virtue of being a member of society	By acceptance of doctrine	By acceptance of doctrine	By an emotional commitment
Relationship to the state	Recognized, closely aligned	Tolerated	Not encouraged	Ignored or challenged

Research Today

The Church of Scientology: Religion or Quasi-Religion?

What do you think of the practice of measuring a person’s mental state with an Electropsychometer? If you were considering becoming a Scientologist, what questions would you ask your auditor about this device?

Do you think that Scientology should be considered a religion? Why or why not?

Social Policy and Education: Charter Schools 1

Looking at the Issue

By 2017, about 3.1 million children enrolled in charter schools in 42 different states.

Charter schools: experimental schools developed and managed by individuals, groups of parents, or educational management organizations

Advocates claim they offer parents accountability for their children’s education.

Proportion of poor children in charter schools exceeds that of traditional schools.

Social Policy and Education: Charter Schools 2

Applying Sociology

Functionalists state that charter schools meet society’s need for education while serving a diverse student body.

Conflict theorists argue that charter schools do not represent teachers’ interests well and contribute to the decline of labor unions.

The diversity in purpose, funding, organization, and curriculum makes generalizing difficult.

Research is mixed on whether charter schools are better or worse than public schools.

Social Policy and Education: Charter Schools 3

Figure 13-8: Charter Schools

Note: Data for Washington State are unavailable.

Source: National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 2017. The Public Charter Schools Dashboard. Washington, D C: N P A C S, 2017.

Social Policy and Education: Charter Schools 4

Initiating Policy

In the United States, school policy is driven at the local level following statewide standards.

Charter schools have taken their strongest hold in urban areas.

Other options available

Homeschooling and school vouchers

Jury still out on effectiveness of charter schools

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Sociological Perspectives on Education 2 – Text Alternative

The anticipated higher education graduation rate in Australia is 76 percent. It is 72 percent in Japan, 65 percent in Denmark, 60 percent in Spain, 58 percent in Chile, 55 percent in the United States, 44 percent in Great Britain, 35 percent in Italy, 32 percent in Hungary, and 26 percent in Mexico.

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Student Subcultures 4 – Text Alternative

In 19 94, 73.4 percent of students were white. This dropped to 61.1 percent in 2016 and is projected to be 59.2 percent in 2022.

In 19 94, 6.9 percent of students were Hispanic. This increased to 15.2 percent in 2016 and is projected to be 16.5 percent in 2022.

In 19 94, 10.5 percent of students were black. This increased to 16.5 percent in 2016 and is projected to be 17.3 percent in 2022.

In 19 94, 5.6 percent of students were Asian Pacific Islander. This increased to 6.3 percent in 2016 and is projected to be 6.1 percent in 2022.

In 19 94, 0.9 percent of students were American Indian or Alaska Native. This stayed the same in 2016 and is projected to be 0.8 percent in 2022.

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World Religions 6 – Text Alternative

Christians make up 31.2 percent of the global population in 2015 and are expected to make up 31.8 percent of the global population in 2060. Muslims make up 24.1 percent of the global population in 2015 and are expected to increase to 31.1 percent in 2060.

Hindus, Buddhists, folk religions, other religions, and unaffiliated religions are projected to see decreases between 2015 and 2060. It is anticipated that Jews will continue to represent 0.2 percent of the global population between 2015 and 2060.

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Religious Participation – Text Alternative

45 percent of Malaysia’s citizens attend religious ceremonies at least once a week. In the United States, it’s 36 percent of citizens. In South Korea, it’s 29 percent of citizens. In both Canada and Israel, 20 percent of citizens attend religious ceremonies at least once a week. It is 17 percent for Australia’s citizens and 15 percent of Spain’s citizens. In Great Britain, it is 13 percent, and 9 percent in Germany. In Japan, it is 4 percent, and 1 percent in China.

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