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Criminology

CHAPTER

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

THIRD EDITION

Social Process and Social Development—It's What We Learn

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Objectives

• Explain the interactionist perspective.

• Outline the evolution of social process and social development theories.

• Describe social control theories, including containment, control-balance, and social bond theories.

• Describe labeling theory.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Objectives

• Explain the policy implications of social process theories.

• Use the social development perspective to explain criminality.

• List the policy implications of social development theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 7.1

Explain the interactionist perspective.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Interactionist Perspective

• Social Process Theories

 Theories that suggest that criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others and that socialization and learning processes occur as the result of group membership and relationships

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Interactionist Perspective

• Social Process Theories

 Types of Social Process Theories

• Social Learning Theory

• Social Control Theory

• Labeling Theory

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Interactionist Perspective

• Social Process Theories

 Social Development Theories

• An integrated view of human development that examines multiple levels of maturation simultaneously, including the psychological, biological, familial, interpersonal, cultural, societal, and ecological levels

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 7.2

Outline the evolution of social process and social development theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

The Evolution of Social Process and Social Development Theory

• Social Learning Theory

 A perspective that places primary emphasis upon the role of communication and socialization in the acquisition of learned patterns of criminal behavior and the values that support that behavior

• All behavior is learned in much the same way as crime.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

The Evolution of Social Process and Social Development Theory

• Differential Association

 An explanation of crime and deviance that holds that people pursue criminal or deviant behavior to the extent that they identify themselves with real or imaginary people from whose perspective their criminal or deviant behavior seems acceptable

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

The Evolution of Social Process and Social Development Theory

• Differential Association

 Suggests all significant human behavior is learned and that crime, therefore, is not substantively different from any other form of behavior

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

The Evolution of Social Process and Social Development Theory

• Differential Association

 Critiques of Differential Association

• Even people who experience an excess of definitions favorable to law violation may still not become criminal.

• Those who rarely associate with recognized deviants may still turn to crime.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

The Evolution of Social Process and Social Development Theory

• Differential Association

 Critiques of Differential Association

• The theory is untestable and not a sufficient explanation for crime.

• Does not provide for free choice in individual circumstances

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 7.3

Describe social control theories, including containment, control-balance,

and social bond theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

• Social Control Theories

 A perspective that predicts that when social constraints on antisocial behavior are weakened or absent, delinquent behavior emerges

• Rather than stressing causative factors in criminal behavior, social control theories tend to as why people do obey rules.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

• Reckless's Containment Theory

 A form of control theory that suggests that a series of both internal and external factors contributes to law- abiding behavior

• Containment

 The stabilizing force that, if effective, blocks pushes and pulls from leading an individual toward crime

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

External Containment

vs.

Internal Containment

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

• Delinquency and Self-Esteem

 Numerous studies support the idea that low self-esteem fosters delinquent behavior.

 Low self-esteem

• A reduced sense of self-worth, to include lowered self-assurance and lowered self- respect

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

• Social Bond Theory (Hirshi)

 Social bonds are formed between individuals and the social group.

 When the bond is weakened or broken, deviance and crime may result.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

FIGURE 7-3 The Four Components of the Social Bond.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

• General Theory of Crime (Hirshi & Gottfredson)

 A theory that attempts to explain all (or at least most) forms of criminal conduct through a single, overarching approach, and which holds that low self-control accounts for all crime at all times

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

• Critique of General Theory of Crime/Social Bond Theory

 Has been criticized for its basic premise that those who commit deviant behavior know that it is against social norms and the law but commit it anyway

 Has been criticized for being overly simplistic and ignoring the complexity of the criminal process

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

• Control-Balance Theory (Tittle)

 A blend of social bond and containment perspectives

 The crucial concept of this theory is control ratio.

• The control ratio is the amount of control to which a person is subject versus the amount of control that person exerts over others.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

FIGURE 7-4 Control-Balance Theory.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

• Critique of Social Control Theories

 They assume all people are automatically nonconformists unless socialized through social control mechanisms.

 The theories do not recognize the role of human motivation or conditions that propel to associate with and learn from others.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 7.4

Describe labeling theory.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Society's response to known or suspected offenders determines the individual's future incidence of criminality by reducing the behavior options available to labeled offenders.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Tagging

 What happens to offenders following arrest, conviction, and sentencing

 Once a person has been defined as bad, few legitimate opportunities remain open to him or her.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Primary deviance is the initial act of deviance.

• Secondary deviance is the continued acts of deviance, especially from forced association with other offenders

• Combined together to be labeled in the role of deviant

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Society creates both deviance and deviant behavior by its response to circumscribed behaviors.

• No act is intrinsically deviant or criminal, but is defined as such by others.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Becoming deviant involves a sequence of steps that eventually leads to commitment to a deviant identity and participation in a deviant career.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Moral Enterprise

 The efforts a particular interest groups makes to have its propriety enacted into law

• Moral Entrepreneurs

 Individuals or groups who engage in the process of moral enterprise

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Becker's typology of delinquents demonstrates the labeling approach.

 Pure Deviant

 Falsely Accused Deviant

 Secret Deviant

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Critique of Labeling Theory

 Does little to explain the origin of crime and deviance

 Few, if any, studies seem to support the basic tenets of the theory.

 Lack of empirical evidence that contact with the criminal justice system is detrimental to the lives of offenders

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

• Critique of Labeling Theory

 Has little to say about secret deviants, people who engage in criminality but are never caught

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 7.5

Explain the policy implications of social process theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Process Theories Policy Implications

• Social process theories suggest that crime prevention should work to enhance self-control and to build prosocial bonds.

• Prosocial bonds

 Bonds between the individual and social group that strengthen the likelihood of conformity

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Process Theories Policy Implications

• Prosocial bonds

 Characterized by attachment to conventional social institutions, values, and beliefs

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Process Theories Policy Implications

• Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP)

 A program that places at-risk youth in a one-on-one relationship with favorable adult role models

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Process Theories Policy Implications

• Preparing for the Drug-Free Years (PDFY)

 A program designed to increase effective parenting for children in grades 4–8 in an effort to reduce drug abuse and behavioral problems

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Process Theories Policy Implications

• Montreal Prevention Treatment Program

 A program designed to address early childhood risk factors for gang involvement by targeting boys in kindergarten who exhibit disruptive behavior

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 7.6

Use the social development perspective to explain criminality.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Over the past 25 years, an emerging application of the process of human development has played an increasingly important role in understanding criminality.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Human development

 The relationship between the maturing individual and his or her changing environment, as well as the social processes that the relationship entails

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Human development

 An integrated view of human development that examines multiple levels of maturation simultaneously, including the psychological, biological, familial, interpersonal, cultural, societal, and ecological levels

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Life-Course Criminology

 A developmental perspective that draws attention to the fact that criminal behavior tends to follow a distinct pattern across the life cycle

• Criminality is relatively uncommon during childhood.

• Criminality tends to begin as sporadic instances of delinquency during late adolescence and early adulthood.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Life-Course Criminology

 A developmental perspective that draws attention to the fact that criminal behavior tends to follow a distinct pattern across the life cycle

• Criminality tends to diminish and sometimes completely disappears by age 30 or 40.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

FIGURE 7-7 Aspects of Criminal Careers.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

FIGURE 7-8 Five Important Life-Course Principles.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Critique of Life Course Theory

 Since many important life-course determinants are set in motion in early childhood and adolescence, should those who make wrong choices be held accountable?

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Age-Graded Theory (Laub & Sampson)

 Children who turned to delinquency were frequently those who had trouble at school and at home and who had friends who were already involved in delinquency.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Age-Graded Theory (Laub & Sampson)

 Turning Points

• Crucial life experiences that can change behavior

• Two especially critical turning points are employment and marriage.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Age-Graded Theory (Laub & Sampson)

 Social Capital

• Refers to the degree of positive relationships with other people and with social institutions that individuals build up over the course of their lives

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Critique of Age-Graded Theory

 Why does social capital prevent some individual from participating in criminal activity and not others?

 Does social capital actually change a criminal's behavior?

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Adult criminality is usually preceded by antisocial behavior during adolescence, but most antisocial children do not become adult criminals.

• Dual Taxonomic Theory helps to explain this.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

Dual Taxonomic Theory (Moffitt)

• Life-course persistent offenders

 Offenders who, as a result of neuropsychological deficits combined with poverty and family dysfunction, display patterns of misbehavior throughout life.

• Adolescence-limited offenders

 Juvenile offenders who abandon delinquency upon reaching maturity.

Social Development Perspective

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Critique of Dual Taxonomic Theory

 The research cannot definitely show that family and psychological dysfunction was directly related to parent control or individual trajectories.

 Generally, this theory is well supported within the field of criminology.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Delinquent Development Theory (Farrington)

 A theory in which persistence describes continuity in crime and desistance refers to the cessation of criminal activity or termination of a period of involvement in offending behavior

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development

 A longitudinal life-course study of crime and delinquency tracking a cohort of 411 boys born in London in 1953

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development

 Findings

• To date, participants have been interviewed nine times.

• Patterns within persistent offenders and chronic offenders were found.

• Found that offending tends to peak around the age of 17 or 18 and then declines

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Components of Desistance

 Deceleration

 Specialization

 De-escalation

 Reaching a ceiling

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Critique of Delinquent Development Theory

 Criticized for methodology and conceptualization of desistance

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Cohort Analysis

 Traces the development of a population whose members share common characteristics

• Usually begins at birth

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Evolutionary Ecology (Cohen and Machalek)

 Blends elements of previous perspectives while emphasizing developmental pathways encountered early in life

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Evolutionary Ecology (Cohen and Machalek)

 Attempts to explain how people acquire criminality, when and why they express it as crime, how individuals and groups respond to those crimes and how all these phenomena interact

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Evolutionary Ecology (Cohen and Machalek)

 Critique of Evolutionary Ecology

• Lack of a second cohort

• Dropping out of cohort members can bias the cohort.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Interactional Theory (Thornberry)

 A theoretical approach to exploring crime that blends social control and social learning perspectives

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Interactional Theory (Thornberry)

 The fundamental cause of delinquency is weakening of a person's bond to conventional society.

 Requires presence of an environment in which delinquency can be learned and rule-violating behavior can be positively rewarded

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Interactional Theory (Thornberry)

 Critique of Interactional Theory

• Theory does not fully appreciate the notion of child maltreatment as an important element of the developmental process leading to delinquency.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Developmental Pathways

 Researchers have found manifestations of disruptive behaviors in childhood and adolescence are often age-dependent.

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Developmental Pathways

 Three separate developmental pathways to delinquency exist.

• Authority Conflict Pathway

• Covert Pathway

• Overt Pathway

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Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• Developmental Pathways

 Critique of Developmental Pathways

• Like other social development theories, the idea of developmental pathways suffers from definitional issues.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Perspective

• The Chicago Human Development Project

 A longitudinal analysis of how individuals, families, institutions, and communities evolve together

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Learning Objective 7.7

List the policy implications of social development theories.

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Theory Policy Implications

• Comprehensive Strategies for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders program

 Provides participating communities with a framework from preventing delinquency; intervening in early delinquent behavior; and responding to serious, violent, and chronic offending

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Social Development Theory Policy Implications

• Program centers around the following components:

 Supporting families

 Supporting core social institutions

 Promoting prevention strategies

 Intervening immediately

 Controlling violent and chronic offenders

 Establishing a spectrum of sanctions

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Summary

• The various types of social process theories include social learning theory, social control theory, and labeling theory.

• Virtually all crime is learned through association with others.

continued on next slide

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Summary

• Social control theories seek to identify those features of the personality and environment that keep people from committing crimes.

• Labeling theory points to the special significance of society's response to crime.

continued on next slide

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Summary

• Social process theories suggest that crime-prevention programs should work to enhance self-control and to build prosocial bonds.

• The social development perspective acknowledges that human development begins at birth and takes place within a social context.

continued on next slide

Criminology, 3e Frank Schmalleger

Chapter Summary

• Advocates of the social development perspective believe that at-risk youth can be effectively diverted from the juvenile justice system through the provision of positive alternatives.