Humanities Assignment 3

RENAISSANCE 9 The Renaissance refers to the birth of culture in Italy during the 1400s (fi fteenth century) and lasting until the Baroque Period of the 1600s (seventeenth century). There were innovations in science, the fi ne arts, new creations in technologies, ar- chitecture, religious ideas, political institutions, and banking at this time. There was a new way of looking at the arts of the Greeks and at their myths and trying to locate their buried sculptures and fi nd out about their gods. There was also an interest in what the Romans believed in and what their architecture was like; how they copied from the Greek gods; how their Latin language was used in their everyday life; and how they brought legends to life through the arts. The Renaissance has been called a rebirth of learning from the Greeks and the Roman way of life. Source: http://petrarch.petersadlon.com/bio.html

Petrarch was born in Arezzo, Italy on July 20, 1304 in the beginning of the early Renaissance during the time of the Black Death (bubonic plague). He and his brother were both spending time in service to the Catholic Church as monks. They both became leaders in the Church and advanced in position to diplomats.

Petrarch became an ambassador to rural areas of Italy which helped bring unity to these areas and eventully was asked to travel to France and the Netherlands as well. In his journeys he encountered a woman named Laura who would die from the plague. Laura became his inspiration to write many of his enduring poems. Petrarch’s speaking and writing skills refl ected his human nature so much so that they evolved into the modern-day ideas called humanism. Source: http://petrarch.petersadlon.com/bio.html

The Renaissance in Europe began in the fi fteenth century; it followed the crippling bubonic plague that ravaged Sicily in 1347 and then proceeded to spread northward. Francesco Petrarca, a poet known as Petrarch, left behind accounts of his anguish and the loss of family members. Petrarch’s poem about Laura, who died from the bubonic plague, is touching. He wrote this poem as a sonnet, which is a poem written with fourteen lines. Another writer who can help increase one’s understanding of the fourteenth century is Geoffrey Chaucer. He wrote with descriptive words and phrases that bring the characters to life. Chaucer translated Petrarch’s work, and from those writings the reader gets a sense of the feelings and the ideas surrounding each poet’s life (Sayre, Discover 183). Petrarch wrote “Sonnet 134.”

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Geoffrey Chaucer (1340–1400) wrote Canterbury Tales. The Canterbury Tales was a series of stories told by pilgrims who were on their way to the shrine where Thomas Becket had been murdered. The thirty pilgrims each tell stories on their way to the shrine and on their way back. The stories are very telling, and Chaucer conveys the flavor of the time through his exquisite writing style, which is natural and down to earth. For example, the story told by the Wife of Bath, who is portrayed as a woman of questionable character, proceeds to tell a moral tale about character (Van de Bogart).

The Renaissance can be called a rebirth of learning. It has also been referred to as a revival. What was it renewing? There was a new interest in the Greek Classical era and the Roman Forum was being excavated. Allegedly, some of the individuals interested in supporting the arts and the excavations were important church leaders. Henry Sayre describes one important individual who helped promote the turn of events that spurred on the Renaissance. That person was Cosimo from the wealthy Medici family. Cosimo de’Medici (1389–1464) went from being a banker to being the pope. At this time, there was not a separation between the church and the state; they were connected. When one reads about Michelangelo’s life and his commissions, one finds the connection of many of his works to the Medici family. Michelangelo was commissioned by some of the princes of the Medici family when they became involved with the papacy. When Michelangelo was a young boy he went to the sculpture school that was run by the Medici family and he met the boys there.

During the Renaissance wealthy families of Florence, such as the Medici family, wanted to turn their cities into attractive and workable environments. They were civic- minded people who started to take pride in their city. Like Cosimo Medici, many of the wealthy were bankers and had enough funds to contribute to the community. The idea of building libraries, hospitals, and other places to help the community began to take shape. That idea was called humanism, because of the focus on human beings and their value. The study of humanism, in a formal sense, also includes the study of the ancient art of Greece and Rome and the study of the arts, music, theater, and literature.

When one examines paintings from this time period, beginning with artists such as Giotto, one detects a change from flat, decorative forms to realistic, human, emotional beings. Giotto paved the way for other artists and subsequent paintings to begin placing figures within an environment, such as a background of trees and lakes, to show that the person lived in the real world. That was a reflection of the humanistic spirit emerging.

Cities began to prosper in some areas with the spread of a humanistic attitude and fewer health problems. To study the Renaissance most effectively, one would need to travel to various locations, because the Renaissance differed in various areas around the world. Most noteworthy, however, was Florence, Italy, which became the hub of all activ- ity. Even today, the huge orange dome can be seen over the top of most other buildings around Florence. The Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral’s dome is magnificent. The art of some of the most famous artists from the Renaissance lived in Florence.

Florence was a center for the arts, and the Medici family had an art competition in 1401 to design large doors on a building next to the cathedral of the Santa Maria del Fiore, or the Florence Cathedral. It may not seem like anything today to have a competition; however, during the Middle Ages, an artist was rarely given credit for his or her work individually, but rather artists were expected to do the work strictly for the “glory of God.” The competition was held and the two finalists were Ghiberti and Brunelleschi. The winner was Ghiberti.

The entries for the competition were to include a panel about the subject of Abraham in the moment when he was about to sacrifice his son. Of course, that did not happen because Abraham was told not to sacrifice his son, and in the contest both artists depicted an angel giving Abraham the message. In Brunelleschi’s version, the

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angel grabs Abraham’s arm to stop him right before he takes the knife to his son. Both panels were superb; however, historians say that Ghiberti’s design and handling of the human form was ahead of his time. His style had an impact on contemporary artists.

Ghiberti’s doors are still standing and used today. The building is still used for baptisms. However, a replica of one set named the “Gates of Paradise” is no longer out- side—it has been moved to the museum down the street from the site. Ghiberti’s father was a goldsmith, and Ghiberti had been trained to create detailed work and cast. Work- ing on these massive doors for the Baptistery building was a long and tedious process and it took him the rest of his life to complete. When Michelangelo saw the doors, he was so taken by their beauty and elegance that he called them the “Gates of Paradise,” the name that remains today.

Meanwhile, Brunelleschi, the artist who lost, was extremely upset and humiliated, so he left Florence and moved to Rome. During his time in Rome he studied the ancient buildings of the Romans, saw their excavations, and studied the Pantheon. Though he lost the contest, his life was better for it—though he did not yet realize that fact. His big break was yet to come. He had become fascinated with how the Romans built structures using arches and how they poured concrete and buttresses, and he spent several years studying architecture and engineering. He was intrigued with the design of the dome of the Pantheon. He knew that he could build a dome as an addition to the Florence Cathedral if given the opportunity.

As the story goes, Brunelleschi went back a number of years later after he lost the competition to Ghiberti. Brunelleschi obtained an appointment with the church fathers because they needed to fi nish a large portion of the cathedral of Florence (Santa Maria del Fiore). They asked to see his drawings. He sat down and said, “I don’t have any.” Then he said to an errand boy, “Run fetch me an egg at the market, but you have to hurry,” and he gave him some money. The boy came back in a fl ash and Brunelleschi in the meantime obtained a bowl.

Brunelleschi looked at each one of the gentlemen sitting around the table, ensuring that he had their attention.

Then he took the egg, clicked it against the bowl so that it cracked perfectly into halves. He poured the yolk into the bowl and put the clean half—straight edge down— in the middle of the table. The perfectly shaped half egg shell sat there on the table for all to see, and Brunelleschi said, “That is what I am going to build for you.”

What do think their reaction was? They must have been rather surprised; but, amazingly, they all agreed to trust him and they accepted his offer. The dome was built and stands as a crowning achievement of Renaissance architecture.

QUESTIONS

Questions to Contemplate

Why do you think Brunelleschi did not want anyone to see his plans?

Or do you think he did not have any drawn plans?

You may want to do your own research about the construction of the dome.

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Question and Answer Question Why didn’t Brunelleschi show his drawings?

Answer Some say that Brunelleschi was afraid that someone would steal them.

The dome by Filippo Brunelleschi was built from 1420 to 1434. The dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore (St. Mary of the Flower) was built during this same time period. This dome influenced Michelangelo, who was the architect of the St. Peter’s dome. St. Peter’s is where the pope has his headquarters at the Vatican. Both the doors of the Baptistery at Santa Maria del Fiore and the outstanding dome are popular attractions for visitors from around the world when they travel to Florence, Italy.

Santa Maria del Fiore’s Baptistery, where people are baptized, is one of the oldest buildings in Florence. It was built in the twelfth century and is of Romanesque construction.

Florence was a significant player in the Italian Renaissance and it has left its mark. It

paved the way for other cities, and it helped establish the concept of being civic minded. For the people of Florence, being civic minded meant placing sculptures and art works in public places for all the citizens to enjoy. Some wealthy Florentine families felt that it was their duty to provide a better environment for their citizens, so they commissioned artists to produce works. One of the commissioned works was David, a sculpture by a young artist named Michelangelo, which symbolized the city of Florence as an up and coming power gaining momentum. David was inspired by the story of the shepherd boy, David, who killed the giant, Goliath. Michelangelo chose to sculpt David in marble, and the sculpture was placed in the square outside the Piazza della Signoria.

Story of David and Goliath Once upon a time there was a family who had several sons and the father was named Jesse. David was the youngest of the sons and was a talented musician who played a harp. He had been summoned by King Saul to play for him, so that evil spirits would vacate the king’s premise, which brought the king great joy.

A conflict occurred and the young men were called upon to fight. David wanted to go but his father would not allow him. Instead his father told him that he was too young and he needed to take care of the sheep. David was not happy that he was not able to go to fight in the conflict with his brothers. Every day he would ask his father if he could go see his brothers and bring them some food. Day after day David tended the sheep, but continued to ask his father when he would be old enough to go fight. Finally one day Jesse said that he could go take his brothers some loaves and corn. This was because Jesse was worried about the length of time his other sons had been gone. David left home and when he arrived at the campsite, he found the Philistine army all lined up on one side of a mountain. Each day the ten-foot Goliath would come out and threaten any one of the Israelites to fight. Goliath would shout to the crowd of men about how he would make them their servants if he prevailed. He asked if anyone wanted to fight.

Some days the men just stayed in their tents in hopes that the giant would eventually go away. David’s brothers were happy to see David. When David saluted his brothers in the trench, Goliath strode right over to David and his brothers. Everyone else ran away in fear. At that point David went to King Saul and told him that no one had to worry

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because he would fight the giant. King Saul did not think that David was old enough for the task. David told the King how he saved his sheep from a lion and another time from a bear, killing each predator with his own hands. The king eventually gave David his blessing, along with his armor and helmet. The gear was too large, however, so David appeared defenseless. David went over to the river and found five smooth stones. He prepared his sling and approached the Philistine giant. The Philistines cursed David and made fun of him The giant even yelled at David making all types of strange com- ments. David calmly stated that he was there in the name of his god. David placed a single stone in his sling and hurled it toward Goliath, hitting him in the forehead. The giant fell dead to the ground.

The little shepherd boy was able to kill the big giant. That is where the phrase comes from about the David and Goliath story that has been told over and over again.

Martin Luther (1483–1546) was a cleric in the Catholic Church who disagreed with Pope Julius II’s policies. Pope Julius II allowed the selling of indulgences in order to pay for his building projects and raise money. The German people did not benefit directly from those funds, and a revolt led by Martin Luther became known as Protestantism. The Protestants did not believe that admittance to heaven could be obtained by selling indulgences and doing good works. They also believed that one could establish a one-on-one relationship with God by doing away with the priesthood, saints, and intercessors.

This gave way to a powerful new method of art: printmaking. Martin Luther also wrote music and translated the Bible into German from Greek. As a result of more trans- lations and the art of printmaking itself, the Bible became more accessible to people. In 1521, Martin Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X. Nevertheless, Martin Luther is remembered as a major figure in the history of Christianity and he initiated the split within Christianity between Protestants and Roman Catholics (World Book Encyclopedia 532). The Lutheran Church was named after Martin Luther.

The Renaissance in Italy and other southern areas of Europe were not experiencing the same circumstances culturally as the northern parts of Europe. When one examines the styles of both regions, the differences are noticeable. The Hundred Years’ War, caused by the supremacy of Burgundy, created problems for France and England. The area known as modern-day Belgium and Holland was under the rule of a French king. The conditions in which artists were living were much like the feudal system from the Middle Ages.

“With the death in 1477 of Duke Charles the Bold son of Philip the Good, the Habsburg empire in Germany moved into the cultural ascendancy. Early in the 16th century, the tensions that had been simmering for years between feudal lords and middle classes, the Church of Rome and the Holy Roman Empire, and the north- ern countries and Italy, broke forth in the form of the commercial revolution and the Protestant Reformation. As much for economic reasons as religious ones, the northern countries severed their financial and ideological ties to the Pope in Rome causing repercussions that are still felt to this day. At about the same time, the court of Henry VIII in England did the same, albeit for different reason. In spite of or per- haps because of, this great conflict, the arts in both Germany and England flourished” (Dixon and Fleming 111).

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Artists Give Us Insight into How People Lived

Artists such as Pieter Brueghel, the Elder from Flanders (modern Belgium), portrayed man’s smallness in the world. His paintings of winter scenes and a wedding dance por- tray regular people in activities. Brueghel’s paintings have a very different look than Michelangelo’s use of dark and light and volume and perspective. The time period of Brueghel’s unique work was 1525 to 1569. In the Wedding Dance, the folks dancing in the background wear the same value of red as the ones in the foreground. Without making that tint or tone of red lighter or darker, the scene tends to become more vi- brant, which creates a sense of happiness and movement. However, it does not seem as representational, real, or natural as some of the Italian Renaissance artists who used chiaroscuro (light and dark) as a method or treatment by using more shadows for more contrast.

Brueghel’s subject matter provides insight in terms of how the people of his day and time lived by showing the manners and customs of that time. This insight makes his work quite significant in the humanities.

Historical Events Affect the Arts “The English dealt a severe blow to Spanish sea-power when they defeated the Armada in 1588. When Ferdinand Isabella married and united their kingdoms in 1492, they did not establish a unified country. Each of the great provinces had a separate administrative and financial organization. The Catholic Church was the only institution common to all parts of Spain. After the Moors were driven out of Spain in 1492, the Spaniards continued to expand and established a colonial empire with the religious and militant spirit of a crusade. This was the situation inherited by Philip II (1556–98), the son of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. During Philip’s reign, great quantities of gold and silver were brought to Spain from the New World (Americas).”

The Spanish citizens revolted against the Spanish government because they wanted to practice their own religion, Calvinism, which was part of the Protestant Reforma- tion. Meanwhile, the Dutch felt that they did not have to contribute by paying taxes to Spain since they supported Spain and not the Dutch.

Gradually Spain declined in power due to oppressive taxation, their inability to promote an industrial society, and the defeat of the Armada in 1588 by England.

Printing Press A major achievement in the northern Renaissance was the printing press. The printing press had a tremendous impact on this region in many ways. It helped create both a freer way of thinking, which caused some to question the Roman Catholic Church, and a means of mass producing art work. Printmaking became important to produce prints for the books that were being printed and sold.

One of the greatest engravers from Germany was Albrecht Durer. William Fleming in Arts and Ideas stated it this way, “In a few short years, northern Europe rose from feudalism to capitalism, from art in the service of the aristocracy to art as reflection of all classes of people” (Dixon and Fleming 111).

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What the Renaissance ushered in was a sense of identity and the opportunity for an artist to be recognized. For the first time in many years, an artist was allowed to have his or her name on a work and obtain a commission. The artist at that time, however, was not a free-spirited individual compared to the Abstract-Expressionists of the twentieth century, for example. The artists of the Renaissance had to maintain positions within the Church and work on commission or work for an aristocrat. The subject matter was normally religious (sacred).

Some works were secular (not religious), but there were not as many commissioned pieces of secular topics as there were of topics about the saints and the disciples. Artists also began to include themselves in paintings and there are a few self-portraits from this time period. Oils also became available, and this new medium allowed for greater consumer access to oil on canvas paintings.

There is a story about Leonardo da Vinci which explains that he began writing with mirror imagery because others were reading his work, and if his ideas were to get into the wrong hands, it would be dangerous. Some say that he was ambidextrous. That makes sense when one sees his notebooks, which are written backward (for many people, a mirror is required to read them). Another interesting note is that some of the notebooks are housed in Windsor Castle in England and the Mona Lisa hangs in France in the Louvre—many pieces of art are no longer in their countries of origin. The mural the Last Supper, though, is on the wall in Milan, Italy, at the Santa Maria della Grazie.

Some time ago an artist friend of mine who taught Art History referred to the Renaissance as the time of the three greats. She meant the time when Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Raphael all were living and creating art. Raphael (1483–1520) was the youngest of the three when he died. He painted a very famous work that was painted down a hall from the Sistine Chapel while Michelangelo was painting the ceil- ing of the chapel. One story (and this is only a story as told by a tour guide) explains that Michelangelo allowed Raphael to see his work and watch him paint. Then, one day, Michelangelo went down the hall and stepped into the room where Raphael was painting The School of Athens, and, lo and behold, there was a figure who had his elbow resting on his right leg and his head bent. It looked almost identical to one of the fig- ures that Michelangelo had wrestled with, and he told Raphael how unhappy he was that his work had been copied. The next day, Michelangelo locked Raphael out of the chapel.

Raphael’s School of Athens has a title that is not exactly helpful to its meaning. The word “school” can mean thought, so one should think about the painting in the fol- lowing terms: Thinking of Athens—i.e., someone thinking that those people in the painting are actually standing in the old area of ancient Greece discussing philosophy and math. The School of Athens is a very large fresco (9’ × 27’). Its composition consists of vivid colors, and the artist made excellent use of space by using perspective with great success.

The School of Athens has two central figures who resemble Raphael’s competi- tors, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. The two central figures are positioned directly below the arch in the painting and reflect the pope’s interest in the study of the Greeks. The figure with the longest hair on the left is Plato (Leonardo da Vinci) and the one on the right holding a book is thought to be Aristotle (Michelangelo). The School of Athens is located in the Vatican, down the hall from the Sistine Chapel in the Stanza della Segnatura, a room that was used for signing papers by Pope Julius II. Raphael was commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint the mural on wet plaster. There are other paintings by Raphael at the Vatican (Sayre 213).

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Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) In Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper, he was able to expressively capture the moment when Jesus Christ, who sits at the very center of the table, says, “One of you will betray me.” The room looks spacious, and all the disciples are seated beside Jesus. They are grouped and it almost appears that the painting was created from an old film’s freeze frame. It seems so real. Da Vinci tried a new concoction of paint material on a dry plas- tered wall when he painted it. The paint did not hold up as well as he would have liked. Some artists had to repair parts of it a few years after he did the work.

During World War II, the church, the Santa Maria della Grazie, was heavily damaged by a bomb. The wall with the mural of The Last Supper remained intact, but it was subjected to rain for awhile so the painting incurred even more damage. Since then it has been repaired, and the building has been remodeled. The wall and the painting are now in good condition.

As one walks into the refectory of the Santa Maria della Grazie and sees The Last Supper, it seems possible to walk up into the painting and join them. The painting is abso- lutely outstanding and spectacular. The painting engrosses the viewer by drawing him or her into the painting through the use of perspective. Da Vinci was able to accomplish a moment in time in his painting by using value, light and dark colors, and rectangular and rounded shapes arranged to complement each other in the composition.

The Renaissance marked a time when painters were considered important people in society who had risen from craftsmen to intellectuals. Da Vinci was a multitalented individual who was able to draw and come up with many ideas related to city planning, architecture, and transportation, to list a few. There was a profound change in the role of the artist in culture during the Renaissance (Sedgwick). Da Vinci was respected not only for his seventeen paintings, but also for his drawings, his intellect, and his scien- tific writings.

Michelangelo Michelangelo’s sculpture of David is said to represent the spirit of the Renaissance in that it represents the humanistic spirit, individualism, and a defiance toward the enemy (Sedgwick). When the sculpture was first shown to the public it was not well received and some people threw stones at it. David was placed outside in front of the town hall of Florence (Palazzo Vecchio).

During the Renaissance, the Medici family, who had been acquainted with Michel- angelo since his father sent him to the Medici family sculpture school, became popes. Pope Julius II died in 1513, right after Michelangelo had completed the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

Niccolò Machiavelli was an important thinker and diplomat who lived at the time of the Italian Renaissance. Historians consider him a leading Florentine statesman and writer who “sought to explain politics realistically” (World Book Encyclopedia).

In his book, The Prince, Machiavelli wrote that, in politics, a healthy environment should be orderly and unified, and if the leader finds that the state is in disarray, the leader must resort to almost any means to restore order. In some cases those measures may be cruel ( World Book Encyclopedia).

The Renaissance was a time of discovery, renewed interest in the Greco-Roman world, the new world of the Americas, the Protestant Reformation, and the growth of cities. Many artists went to Florence and Rome to find work, and artists were hired to paint and decorate churches.

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Michelangelo worked on the ceiling from 1508 to 1512. He was commissioned by Pope Julius II. This pope had previously commissioned Michelangelo to sculpt his tomb, a task Michelangelo was asked to complete by many people over the course of his life. Michelangelo considered himself a sculptor and preferred to sculpt. He was not interested in executing the ceiling but began with a design that included figures of disciples. When he had worked on it for quite some time, however, he looked at it from below and realized that the figures were not large enough. He also gave up his first theme for a new plan. He painted a large area of the ceiling fresco, and when he came down from the scaffolding seventy feet above, he looked up and, to his dismay, realized that the work did not look correct. When he was up close to the figures that he painted they looked fine. When he stepped down they looked way too small. He covered them up again with plaster and started fresh.

For his new painting, Michelangelo decided to use the first book of the Bible and focus on the Creation story. The frescos depict Separation of Light from Darkness, Creation of Sun, Moon Planets, Separation of Land from Water, Creation of Adam, Temptation and Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, Sacrifice of Noah, The Flood, and Drunkenness of Noah. Those are the paintings down the center of the ceiling and the sides portray Sibyls and prophets.

Michelangelo was a sculptor who worked on the Pieta and David when he was in his early twenties. Michelangelo also designed tombs for Giuliano and Lorenzo de’ Medici in the Medici Chapel in the church of San Lorenzo (Hale 106).

Michelangelo worked on the Last Judgment, which is also in the Sistine Chapel, from 1534 to 1541. He was commissioned under Pope Paul III. Last Judgment pos- sesses an emerging style that historians called Mannerism. Mannerism emphasizes the use of light and dark and elongated forms to express ideas. Last Judgment depicts Judgment Day—the day when God comes back on the last day and each person is judged.

Shakespeare In England, plays such as Henry V, Hamlet, A Winter’s Tale, and Othello were being performed. Shakespeare wrote those plays and many more. In general, Shakespeare wrote plays with themes that deal with universal feelings and ideas. The plays deal with heavy themes that raise deep questions about life and death. The issues that Shake- speare wrote about dealt with how men and women had the capability to make up their own minds and think freely. In Hamlet when the main character, Hamlet, talks to his friend he notes that “man is noble in reason and infinite in faculty.” Think about how Shakespeare represented and reflected the time in which he lived, and yet how his plays remain meaningful in the world today. How is that possible? What makes a play remain meaningful and have the capacity to be performed over and over again?

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QUESTIONS

Questions to Contemplate

What does the term Renaissance mean?

What type of paintings did Michelangelo create?

What is a fresco?

What was the Reformation?

Who was Martin Luther?

Why do paintings from the area called Flanders look different than those from Florence?

What impact did the printing press have on European life?

How is it possible for Shakespeare’s Hamlet and A Winter’s Tale to remain mean- ingful even to today’s audiences? What makes a play remain meaningful and have the capacity to be performed over and over again?

Accomplishments of the Renaissance Period Renaissance major accomplishments were many:

Modern commercial infrastructure developed

Trade between countries in their known world (modern Europe) became possible

Florence became the center of this fi nancial industry

The idea of man being the center of the universe (humanism developed)

A decline of feudalism

Change from a land-based society to more enterprises

Great artworks such as fresco paintings by the “three greats,” Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci

Use of perspective—the illusion of depth (in paintings such as School of Athens and Last Supper)

The great marble sculptures of Michelangelo’s David and Pieta

The renewed interest in Greek art which was being excavated