Humanities Assignment 3

Modern-day Rome is where the ancient city of Rome was, and some buildings from that great city such as the Pantheon and the Colosseum still remain. In order to fully understand how Rome came to be such an enormous and powerful empire in the ancient world, it is important to begin with the seventh century B.C.E. At that time, the Etruscan people inhabited the Italian peninsula (Gilbert and Mc- Carter 371). The Italian peninsula would eventually be part of the Roman Empire. The Romans would become the most powerful culture on the Mediterranean Sea, and their empire would stretch from modern-day Scotland to the Sahara Desert. Whether or not the early inhabitants, known as the Etruscans, came from the Near East is up for speculation. However, the Etruscans certainly infl uenced the devel- opment of Roman culture. The Etruscans were known for their mineral resources, and by the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E. they were major exporters of fi ne painted pottery and black ceramic ware. Much of what is known about the Etrus- cans has come down to us from their art works and from their terra cotta burial coffi ns. The Etruscan sarcophagi, or coffi ns, are artifacts that serve as indicators of their lifestyle. At least they can give us a glimpse into the nature of Etruscan marriage relationships and how they felt about burying the dead. They left behind burial sites and decorated coffi ns, which were made of a clay-type material called terra cotta. Archaeologists have discovered that husbands and wives were placed in coffi ns side by side, and that in death they were reclining together in a single burial sarcophagas (Sayre 236).

Roman culture was partially infl uenced by the ways of the Etruscan culture. A few of the infl uences were street, masonry, and arch designs. The Etruscans also shaped Roman sanitation, engineering, and construction. The Roman practices of burying the dead in cemeteries and using terra cotta for coffi ns were borrowed from the Etruscans (Lamm and Cross 211).

The Greeks infl uenced the Romans. In the eighth century B.C.E., colonies developed in the southern part of modern-day Italy. A tourist can still observe some of the Greek architectural infl uences on ancient temples in the areas of Naples and Paestum. The temple of Hera at Paestum stands as a testament to that period. The Romans copied the orders, such as the Doric order, that were used in the Greek construction. On the Colosseum, one sees the use of all three orders as decorative elements on the building’s exterior. The orders are utilized on many temples throughout Greece. The three orders are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The Doric order is the simplest of the three and has no base. The Ionic order has swirls on each side at the top and has a base. The Corin- thian order is the most elaborate and has many curves and swirls. It also has a base. The Corinthian order is used on the Temple of Zeus. The Romans and the

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Greeks shared the same pantheon of gods. But since the Romans and the Greeks spoke different languages, they had different names for the gods. For example, the Roman name for Zeus was Jupiter. An illustration of the Temple of Jupiter may also be labeled as the Temple of Zeus. The name that is used depends upon whether the text uses the Greek or the Latin terms. The Romans are said to have admired Greek art, and they imported many Greek works of art. They acquired the art from Greek merchants who transported sculptures by ship across the Mediterranean Sea from Greece to Rome. Many Greek artists were taken to Rome, where they produced sculpture en masse. Military leaders were represented in sculptures as symbols of power. The Roman leaders knew how to use art for their own political purposes.

The Romans established a republic and conquered the ancient Greeks. Julius Caesar (100–44 B.C.E.) became emperor, but he was assassinated. The republic then fell.

After Caesar’s death, Emperor Augustus (63 B.C.E.–14 C.E.) initiated a short-lived period of peace. During this time, Rome became a center for architecture, city planning, transportation, and militarization. His period of rule marked a time of relative stability.

With the Aenied having been written by Virgil, Augustus had established for himself a propagandistic aim of justifying imperial power. Just as the Aeneid told the story of Aeneas the warrior who was a hero for the Roman people, the story was an attempt to parallel the Roman culture’s Iliad and the Odyssey from the Greeks. Just like Homer’s Iliad and the Odyssey had established the conventions of the day and laid out the basic cultural ties and commonalities, the Romans would have their own identity with the stories in the Aeneid (Bishop 92). “He kept the provinces under control and established strong defenses along the frontiers of the Roman Empire. He began to develop a civil service staffed by skilled administrators to help govern the empire. Trade flourished, and art and literature reached a high point during what has been called the Augustan Age” (World Book Encyclopdia).

The expanding Roman Empire conquered Egypt and brought an end to Ptolemaic rule in that region in 31 B.C.E. His huge empire flourished until Emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey). That ended the days of the Latin Empire (Dixon and Fleming 39).

The Romans dominated the Greeks militarily, but they were fascinated with the Greek theater, gods, sculpture, and architecture. For that reason, many of the Greek works come down through history from the Romans. Some of the sculptures that remain are only Roman copies of Greek originals. Original Greek sculptures were usually made of bronze, and the Romans copied them in stone. The Romans were very organized in their methods of city planning and used poured concrete to build monuments. They also pioneered an efficient road system and engineered an efficient system of aqueducts and sewers (Dixon and Fleming 40).

Sculptures demonstrated power. Augustus had supreme power and, in a well-known sculpture now in the Vatican Museum, “He portrayed himself as a near-deity” (Sayre 245). In this sculpture he is showing his obligation to the country. The sculpture is unusual in that his face is idealized. In most other Roman sculptures created at that time the face would have looked more like the individual it portrayed. In other words, the work would have been representational. In this work, the face appeared to be similar to a Greek sculpture, the Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer). The original sculpture of the Doryphorus was created around 450–440 B.C.E.

Augustus also wanted to be remembered and respected. Therefore he knew that he must have the people think of him as a ruler who was endowed with the right to rule from the gods. If he was to rule effectively and maintain his authority Augustus knew that he needed a plan. Therefore he sought to create a myth, or legend, which would idealize him in a Greek manner and portray him as a noble ruler. To accomplish

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this goal, he commissioned Virgil to write The Aeneid. It was written with many of the same elements as the Greek stories found in Homer’s Iliad. Careful analysis of Augus- tus’s sculpture from the Vatican Museum reveals that Virgil’s ideas about Augustus’ royal lineage are symbolically represented. Virgil traced his ancestry to Aeneas, the founder of Rome. Augustus’ divine origin was represented in the sculpture by Cupid and Venus. Venus was said to be the mother of Aeneas. She was symbolized by the images of both the dolphin and Cupid as seen under the right leg of Augustus’ sculp- ture. These symbols communicated the emperor’s royal linage (Lamm and Cross 265). It is important to realize how Augustus used sculptures and literature to influence public opinion. He placed his sculpture in strategic locations around the city. He also represented himself in the likeness of a Greek and a ruler. That image helped him to achieve his leadership style. The public learned to honor and respect his leadership.

The Romans developed a water transport system using aqueducts. Parts of these aqueducts remain standing in France and are in excellent condition. Roads and bridges built by the Romans in the first and second centuries still stand and some even remain in use. At the time, it was said that all roads lead to Rome. Their transportation sys- tem set the modern-day standard. They invented a type of poured concrete, which was used on the construction of the Pantheon in Rome. The building was so revolutionary that an artist from the Renaissance studied the Pantheon’s structure and design. The Romans have influenced future generations of builders. Many architects and engineers have studied Roman designs and domes over the centuries, and they have developed new ideas based on Roman plans and structures. The Romans left behind an important legacy.

The story of the founding of Rome was based on the traditional Etruscan legend of twin brothers named Romulus and Remus. The boys were abandoned on the shores of the Tiber River by their uncle, and rescued by a she-wolf. The she-wolf protected and fed them until a shepherd came along and brought them home to his wife to raise. When they became teenagers they often got into arguments. One day, during a heated argument, one of them was killed accidentally. Rome was named after Romulus, the one who lived. According to legend, Remus died around 753 B.C.E., and Romulus became the first King of Rome.

Roman sculpture tends to look more like the actual individual being portrayed than does Classical Greek sculpture. The Greek Hellenistic style, which was more decorative and sometimes told a story, was utilized more by the Romans. The Romans also mass- produced sculptures. Often they placed sculptures of their leaders in strategic areas around the city in order to commemorate a victory or to improve the leader’s reputation. When a military leader returned from a victory, the conqueror would commission artwork, such as a triumphal arch, to be erected in his honor. Artists would also produce busts of a ruler’s likeness with scars on his face to represent his bravery. This showed the public that it was important to fight for Rome and to be a good citizen.

Augustus of Prima Porta is the famous sculpture of Augustus in which he is shown in his role as commander in chief. “Riding a dolphin at his feet is a small Cupid, son of the goddess Venus, laying claim to the Julian family’s divine descent from Venus and Aeneas.” Though Augustus was over seventy years old when he died, he was always depicted as young and vigorous, choosing to portray himself, apparently, as the ideal leader rather than the wise, older pater.

Augustus was careful to maintain at least the trappings of the Republic. The Senate stayed in place, but Augustus soon eliminated the distinction between patricians and equites and fostered the careers of all capable individuals, whatever their origin. Some he made provincial governors, others administrators in the city, and he encouraged still others to enter political life. Soon the Senate was populated with many men who

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had never dreamed of politician-owed everything to Augustus. Their loyalty further solidified his power (Sayre 246).

Augustus was the adopted son of Julius Caesar, and became the first emperor of Rome when Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 B.C.E. Before Caesar, Rome had been a republic. Augustus restored peace and gained control of parts of modern-day Europe, North Africa, and the Near East.

Augustus (also known as Octavian) was a patron of the arts and he arranged for artistic patronage to pass through his office. Augustus also supported the construction of baths, theaters, triumphal arches, and a colonnaded main road leading to an adminis- trative center in the middle of the city of Rome (Sayre 252). The time period of stability under Augustus became known as the Pax Romana or Roman Peace.

“Roman society was divided into citizens and non-citizens. There were three classes of citizens—patricians, the richest aristocrat; equites, the wealthy merchants; and plebeians, the ordinary citizens. All citizens were allowed to vote in elections and to serve in the army. They were also allowed to wear togas” (Encyclopedia of World History).

The Roman Army was originally formed to protect the city of Rome. It was made up largely of volunteer soldiers. General Marius (155–86 B.C.E.) reorganized the army into a more disciplined and efficient fighting force. Soldiers were paid wages and enlisted for a period of 20 to 25 years. Ordinary soldiers were grouped into units called legions; each legion was made up of about 5,000 men. The legions, in turn, were made up of smaller units called centuries. Each century contained eighty men. These were commanded by soldiers called centurions (Encyclopedia of World History).

Roman soldiers were well trained and well organized. Wearing heavy armor and plumed bronze or iron helmets, they were capable of marching about twenty miles a day carrying weapons, food, and a camping kit (Encyclopedia of World History).

The Romans told stories about their interpretation of the universe, which included various interpretations and revisions of the Greek gods. The list below gives the Greek and Roman names for some of the major gods and describes their functions. The Roman name is in parentheses.

Olympian Gods Aphrodite (Venus): Goddess of love and beauty

Apollo (Apollo): God of the sun, truth (reason), archery, music, medicine, and prophecy

Ares (Mars): God of war

Artemis (Diana): Goddess of the hunt, twin sister of Apollo, guardian of women

Demeter (Ceres): Goddess of the underworld/agriculture

Hades (Pluto): Ruler of the underworld

Hera (Juno): Goddess of marriages; wife of Zeus

Hermes (Mercury): Messenger of the gods

Hestia (Vesta): Goddess of the family and home

Pallas Athena (Minerva): Goddess of wisdom and war; patroness of artisans

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Poseidon (Neptune): Ruler of the sea; carried a magic trident

Zeus (Jupiter): Ruler of the gods, god of the sky. Symbol: thunderbolt and lighting

Other Gods Atlas: Superhuman strength; carried the world on his shoulders

Chronus (Saturn): God of time

Dionysus (Bacchus): God of wine

Nike (Victoria): Goddess of victory

Pandora: When she opened a certain box, she released evil into the world

Persephone (Prosperine): Goddess of the underworld

Priapus: God of fertility

Prometheus: Cousin of Zeus; clever

Psyche: Goddess of the soul

The Middle Ages followed the Roman period. Christianity was one of the new religions that spread across the Roman world. The Romans worshipped many gods and often adopted new religions from the people that they conquered. The teaching of Jesus Christ began to spread, but many of the people at that time were unaware of the meaning of those teachings. The Romans built huge structures, such as markets, businesses, and law courts, which were constructed using the vaulted arch. These public buildings were called basilicas. The basilica was an important architectural structure for the early Christians. John P. Sedgwick Jr., in his book Art Appreciation Made Simple, states,“This is most important when we regard what happened in the Early Christian basilica, designed as a church, a product that reflected spiritualism, mystery, other worldly, and a sense of being overpowered by something greater than oneself. Contrary to the classical and practical world of the Roman characteristics which were considered to be more functional, decorative and secular. The Middle Ages would become a civilization that according to some historians they could no longer consider it to belong to the ancient world” (Sedgwick 56).

According to Sedgwick, the Middle Ages ushered in a new type of attitude toward religion. Medieval architecture and culture would reflect that spiritual attitude. They placed emphasis on the next life, and believed that this life should be spent doing good works so that the next life would be better. After a person died, if he had done good deeds, such as helping to build a church, he would be able to live in heaven for eternity. Constantine’s conversion to Christianity transformed the ancient world.

Cultural transformation is often reflected in art. There had been a shift in attitudes between the Classical Greek and Roman periods. Graceful, idealized forms were used to show ideas and represent truth and beauty during the Golden Age of Greece. Dur- ing the later years of the Roman period, when art was used to dictate political rhetoric, the style became rigid and static. The early art of the Christian era may appear to be somewhat flat and decorative. The baby Jesus and his mother were the subjects of many works. The figures may have lines that are very noticeable, and the colors applied almost as if the artist was simply trying to paint inside the lines. That was the style then.

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Many of the church leaders did not want to have sculptures or paintings of their reli- gious figures in the style of the Classical Greek sculptures. They were not to appear to be from the natural world, but from the spiritual realm.

It was not until A.D. 391 that the Church in Rome had Christianity declared an official religion of Rome. In A.D. 333 Constantine the Great set up his capitol in the city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey). When his mother became a Christian he set up Christianity as a state religion.

There have been volumes and volumes written about the Romans. They have fasci- nated historians for centuries and will continue to do so. The Romans were influenced by the Greeks especially in the areas of art and architecture. Greek gods were given Etruscan names, a belief in an afterlife, and mausoleums were constructed in the form of houses (an idea borrowed from Greek myths). The Romans built the Pantheon, which had an enormous dome with columns at the entrance. The Romans also built the Pont du Gard during the late first century. This aqueduct was used to carry water to towns in the region (Parrott 65).

Historians have long debated the reasons Rome fell and divided in the way that it did. There are clues to the causes in many primary sources. These records may be tapped by students. Some historians say that taxes became so high that they became unbearable and many people could not afford to pay them. Also, at times there was an absence of a centralized government.

One individual who was in the vicinity when a cataclysmic event took place in 70 C.E. was Pliny the Elder. He wrote accounts that have been helpful in understanding the history of the Roman people. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, was present on the day that Mt. Vesuvius erupted. He managed to stay away from the disaster. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, was commander of the navel fleet at Misenum. According to his neph- ew’s account, he died because he was attempting to rescue others who were across the bay. They were unable to land anywhere close to the mountain because of the hot ash and lava coming from the mountain. An account written by an individual named Gaius reported that Pliny the Elder was trying to rescue people and collapsed the next day from breathing the toxic flumes. He was unable to get back onto a ship and died. Gaius heard the story from witnesses who verbally reported it to him. That is how it has been passed down in history. Pliny the Younger wrote a very touching account about how he and his mother ran through an open field before they escaped on a ship. He also expressed deep sadness for the loss of his beloved uncle.

Town of Pompeii After the eruption in 79 C.E., Pompeii was covered in volcanic ash and many feet of volcanic material. In the late 1800s excavation teams managed to uncover parts of the town. The town was incredibly well preserved. Researchers could walk on Pompeii’s streets, complete with pavement and stepping stones. They could also examine houses and shops. The artifacts and features found at Pompeii can provide valuable insight into the way of life of first-century Romans.

The walls in many of the buildings were covered with exquisite paintings. Many of them depicted ceremonies, in addition to landscapes and still lifes. Many representa- tional paintings were on walls, and the artists’ use of perspective made it look as though you were looking out a window. The reddish-orange color that was used was very bright and intense, and was often used in murals in that area.

Much of what is known today about the way people lived during the first century in this Italian coastal town is known only because of the Vesuvius eruption. Many of the

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wealthy escaped, but the workers did not. Firsthand accounts, like Pliny the Younger’s, help researchers understand the past better (Sayre, Discover 93–94).

For about sixteen centuries Pompeii was covered with ash and lava. In 1748 excavations were undertaken by German archaeologist Joachim Winckelmann. The archaeologists soon uncovered businesses and homes. The buildings revealed many frescoes, which were surprisingly in excellent condition. Some historians think that the paintings in the homes at Pompeii may have been painted by Greeks who had immigrated to Pompeii. However, this has not been proven. One reason some scholars argue for Greek involvement is that the subject of a series of paintings in the “Villa of Mysteries” was a ritual associated with Dionysus, the Greek god of wine (Gilbert and McCarter 372).

Accomplishments of the Ancient Roman Civilization Period

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A transportation system of roads • The use of the aqueduct as a successful water system • Military Science • Use of the dome in architecture - An example which is still standing in tact is the

Pantheon which is in Rome, Italy • The use of the Greek gods and goddesses as their gods and goddesses • The Romans did not invent the arch however, they used it in construction • Used poured concrete in architecture