exam HIST 318
HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN AMERICAN CITIES
THE GREAT MIGRATION: THE FIRST WAVE
HIST 318
THE FIRST WAVE
BLACKS LEAVING THE SOUTH
In the late 19th century, over 90% of America’s black population lived in the South
During the first wave of the migration (from 1910 to the 1940s), the African American population increased by 40% in northern cities as a result of mass migration
Detroit, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cleveland, Baltimore, and New York City had the largest black population increases in the early part of the 20th century
THE FIRST WAVE
WORLD WAR I
When World War I broke out in Europe in 1914, industrialized urban areas in the North, Midwest and West faced a shortage of industrial laborers
With war production kicking into high gear, recruiters enticed African Americans to come the North, to the dismay of white Southerners
Black newspapers like the Chicago Defender, published advertisements touting the opportunities available in the cities of the North and West, along with first-person accounts of success
FROM FIELD TO FACTORY
“PULL FACTORS”
Blacks were “pulled” to cities by factors that attracted them
Wanted job opportunities, where they could earn a wage rather than be tied to a landlord
Men wanted a chance to vote without the threat of violence
Many lacked funds to move north, but factory owners and businesses that sought cheap labor assisted the migration
Men usually moved first then sent for their families once they settled
Racism and a lack of formal education relegated black workers to lower-paying unskilled or semi-skilled occupations
FROM FIELD TO FACTORY
INDUSTRIAL JOBS FOR BLACK MEN
Thousands of African Americans were recruited for industrial jobs
More than 80% of African American men worked menial jobs in steel mills, mines, construction, and meat packing
Many gained jobs related to the expansion of the Pennsylvania Railroad
In the railroad industry, they were often employed as porters or servants; in other businesses, they worked as janitors, waiters, or cooks
FROM FIELD TO FACTORY
JOBS FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN
Black women, who faced discrimination due to both their race and gender, found work in the North as well
Were employed in the garment industry, but were more often employed as maids and domestic servants
Black women reshaped modern domestic work
Instead of living with their employers, black domestic workers went home to their families at the end of the day
In many ways, this transformation of domestic work into a day job helped redefine domestic labor in the modern era as a visible form of labor, like factory work or sales work
FROM FIELD TO FACTORY
HIGHER WAGES
Regardless of the status of their jobs, African American men and women earned higher wages in the North than they did for the same occupations in the South
Many were able to save wages to help family members who remained in the South
African Americans typically found housing to be more available
RACISM IN THE NORTH AND WEST
TENSION WITH EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS
In addition to blacks, major cities attracted millions of new European immigrants
Tension rose as blacks and whites competed for jobs and scarce housing
Tensions were often most severe between Irish immigrants, defending their recently gained jobs and neighborhood, and recent immigrants and African Americans
This tension often led to violent encounters between whites and blacks
RACISM IN THE NORTH AND WEST
COMPETITION FOR LIVING SPACE
Aside from competition for jobs, there was also competition for housing in increasingly crowded cities
While segregation was not legalized in the North and West (as it was in the South), racism and prejudice were still widespread
After the U.S. Supreme Court declared racially based housing ordinances unconstitutional in 1917, some residential neighborhoods enacted covenants requiring white property owners to agree not to sell to blacks
These would remain legal until the Supreme Court struck them down in 1948
As a result of housing tensions, many Black residents ended up creating their own cities within big cities
RACISM IN THE NORTH AND WEST
THE KU KLUX KLAN REEMERGES
Although white supremacist violence never ceased in the South, the KKK disappeared after Reconstruction
The Klan reemerged in 1915, a few months after the film The Birth of a Nation was released
The film, which depicted the KKK as heroes, was shown by President Woodrow Wilson at the White House
By 1920s, it became a national organization with support in the North and West as well as South
Played on perceived threats from immigrants and African Americans
Terrorized African Americans and other ethnic communities; especially targeted black soldiers
THE KLAN AS A NATIONAL ORGANIZATION
The KKK had 5 million by the first wave of the Great Migration
Set up chapters in the North and the West
Businessmen, politicians, Protestant clergy, Woman’s Order, Junior Order for boys, Tri K Klub for girls
The Klan opposed: Immigrants, Blacks, Jews, Catholics
Beat, branded, and lynched
Burned synagogues, black and Catholic churches
RACISM IN THE NORTH AND WEST
EDUCATION
Greater educational opportunities and more expansive personal freedoms mattered greatly to the African Americans in the North during the Great Migration
State legislatures and local school districts allocated more funds for the education of both blacks and whites in the North, and also enforced school attendance laws more rigorously
NON-ECONOMIC GAINS
DEFERENCE TO WHITES NOT REQUIRED
Unlike in the South where a simple gesture or not following racial etiquette could result in physical harm to blacks, life in larger, crowded northern urban centers permitted a degree of anonymity
Blacks enjoyed more personal freedom, which enabled them to move, work, and speak without deferring to every white person with whom they crossed paths
Psychologically, these gains more than offset the continued economic challenges that black migrants faced
NON-ECONOMIC GAINS
FEAR OF A BLACK EXODUS
As the migration of African Americans out of the South picked up, white southern elites began to panic, fearing that a prolonged black exodus would bankrupt the South
White employers and planters eventually began expressing their fears
White southerners soon began trying to stop the flow of the migration to prevent the loss of their labor supply
Feared that many more blacks would leave the South
THE RESPONSE FROM WHITE SOUTHERNERS
COMPETING WITH THE NORTH
Some white Southerners even began attempting to address the poor living standards and racial oppression experienced by Southern blacks in order to induce them to stay
Southern employers increased their wages to match offers in the North
Some individual employers even opposed Jim Crow laws
When measures failed to stop mass migration, white southerners, in concert with federal officials who feared the rise of black nationalism, co-operated in attempting to stop migration out of the South (bus and train restrictions, failure to cash checks, diverting news coverage of life in the North, violence, etc.)
THE RESPONSE FROM WHITE SOUTHERNERS
DETROIT
During the first wave of the great migration, African Americans came to Detroit by the thousands from Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and South Carolina
The first major period of black growth in Detroit occurred from 1910 to 1930, during the economic expansion in the auto industry
Most blacks lived in mixed communities with recent European immigrants
Due to the war effort in World War I, many men enlisted in the armed forces, and employers needed workers
African Americans in the city established black churches, an NAACP branch and social organizations
WHERE DID THEY GO?
CHICAGO
To a number of southern blacks, Chicago was the “Promised Land”
Stories of big city life included jobs with good wages, homes with running water, and basic freedoms denied to blacks in the South attracted African Americans
Chicago’s reputation in the black press, made it a prime destination for blacks coming from the South
500,000 African Americans ultimately moved to Chicago during the first wave of migration
Between 1915 and 1940, Chicago's black population more than doubled
WHERE DID THEY GO?
WHERE DID THEY GO?
THE BLACK CHICAGO RENAISSANCE
Black Chicago became the center of black culture during the 1930s and 1940s
Emergence of writers Arna Bontemps and Margaret Walker
Home to the most influential black newspaper, The Chicago Defender
Chicago’s South Side jazz scene was influential and included musical giants like Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington
Dancer Katherine Dunham founded Chicago’s Negro Dance Group
It allowed black dancers to take instructional classes; there was no place for blacks to study dance in Chicago
CLEVELAND
Cleveland became the destination for people from Alabama, Tennessee and the Carolinas, seeking a better life than the South offered, including gainful employment
Cleveland’s population grew 60% between 1910 and 1930, rising to 900,429
Violent encounters between African Americans and whites occurred occasionally
Hardening racism, bolstered by discriminatory practices by landlords, real estate brokers, and banks, largely confined African Americans to the Cedar-Central neighborhood on Cleveland's near east side
WHERE DID THEY GO?
PHILADELPHIA
The black population more than doubled, from 1910 to 1940
Most of the migrants came from the Georgia, the Carolinas and Virginia, and sought factory jobs
Other industrial cities in the area, such as Camden, Chester, and Norristown, also saw black population growth, but the bulk of black migrants moved to Philadelphia
The first wave changed the social and cultural complexion of West Philadelphia neighborhoods, leading to a housing crisis and racial conflict
Black migrant also clashed with “Old Philadelphians”(the black elite)
WHERE DID THEY GO?
BALTIMORE
During the first wave of the migration, thousands of blacks from the deep South moved to Baltimore in search of better jobs and freedom from segregationist Jim Crow laws, lynching, and other forms of anti-black racism
Baltimore was a major destination for African Americans coming from Alabama, Florida, Georgia and the Carolinas
Although Baltimore was often viewed as a northern city by blacks from the deep South, many encountered racist laws and practices that impacted housing, education and job opportunities
WHERE DID THEY GO?
NEW YORK CITY
The rise of violence in the Jim Crow South also led to the mass migration of African Americans to New York City
The arrival of black migrants coincided with the transition of the center of African-American power and demography in the city from other boroughs to Harlem
Black real estate entrepreneur Philip Anthony Payton, Jr., known as the “Father of Harlem”, began renting properties in Harlem, New York City, almost exclusively to African Americans
This demographic shift on the early 20th century, made Harlem the “Negro Capitol of the World”
WHERE DID THEY GO?
Philip Anthony Payton, Jr.
WHERE DID THEY GO?
ST. LOUIS, MO
Beginning in the 1930s, blacks began to migrate in large numbers to St. Louis, MO
St. Louis was responsible for producing several outstanding black jazz and classical musicians
Blacks churches, schools and media also thrived in St. Louis
Black churches also encouraged black children to pursue studying music and the arts
THE BLACK CHURCH
Remained a vital force in Black America during the early part of the 20th century
Helped hundreds of thousands of migrants adjust to urban life in northern cities
Fought for freedom, justice, equality and racial pride
Most active churches included the AME Church, the Baptist Church and the Church of God in Christ
Also fed and clothed blacks during the Great Depression and provided medical care to the sick
Many secular musicians in the jazz and blues arenas received their initial musical training in church
THE BLACK CHURCH AND THE FIRST WAVE