WEEK4 Philosophy

The formation of religion begins with experience. Indigenous religions, also known as traditional or primal religions, are rooted in a supernatural experience with deities, spirits, ancestors, and nature. Although many tribal peoples worship numerous spirits, deities, and ancestors, there exists a distinct, supreme spirit above all others. This Great Spirit (known by various names) can be male, female, or genderless. The Great Mother, for example, represents the giver of all life; for this reason, many tribal communities remain matriarchal as opposed to patriarchal. The Mother spirit can represent birth, goddess, and/or earth.

Worship of deities and ancestors varies from group to group and depends upon the region and historical familial community. A crucial truth in one group may not be the same in another group. So, even though you will encounter similarities between groups—for example, the Great Mother deity—not all of these groups will worship her in the exact same way(s).

Many indigenous groups around the globe use the circle as a symbol for understanding life. For these groups, time is cyclical, meaning that time is not divided into beginning and end. Just like time, human life (birth, maturation into adulthood, death, postdeath), seasons, and celestial movements of planets are all cyclical phenomena. A relationship with these cycles and spirits helps keep balance in the universe.

Most indigenous religions understand they are the stewards of the world around them because their world is the Great Mother. This type of caretaking implies a close relationship between people and Mother Earth. In a familial context, all things—animate (humans, animals) and inanimate (rocks, waterfalls)—are considered part of the same family.

This kind of kinship helps to define animism, a belief that all things are animated or possess a spirit. Animism requires the believer to maintain a respectful relationship with all beings, as these spirits are always working in the world in both negative and positive ways. Animism is to believe that all things are alive and indwelled with a spirit.

Engaging with God or spirits in a meaningful and impactful way is defined as a primal experience and occurs when a person is connecting with one or more deities or connecting with other higher or past spirits. This primal experience usually creates a life-altering experience such as going from nonbelief to belief or gaining clarity or discernment.

Aspects of relationship with the spirit world include ancestor worship, attention to natural creation or the cosmos, and animism. Again, while there are strands of similarities, indigenous communities tend to follow their own individual rituals, practices, and ancestor worship.

Ancestors serve as integral parts of indigenous religions. The dead are viewed like community caretakers; they are not feared as evil forces, as might be in the case with some religions. Because of their postdeath roles in the community, ancestors are not to be forgotten; if they are, these relatives can disrupt the society in a variety of ways, including causing illness or death to an individual or afflicting an entire community. For this reason, the role of the shaman and medicine people as mediators is crucial to the survival and well-being of the community—these mystical intermediaries need to know how to communicate with the ancestors for the community to remain at peace.

A shaman (also known by other names, depending on the group) mediates between humans and the spirit world. His or her function in the supernatural relationship is to serve the needs of the community such as harvests, hunts, and healings. A shaman is either born into the societal role or, if the individual’s gifts are recognized, may be chosen for the sacred role.

A medicine person possesses special healing talents and skills. These practitioners work with the health of the entire person: physical, psychological, and spiritual. Traditional healers employ a variety of techniques—from herbs and massage to ceremony and divination—in order to connect with the spirits and heal the afflicted individual.

These mystical intermediaries possess skills to access different realities and move between spiritual realms. Spirits can enter and enliven these intercessors, causing states of spiritual ecstasy as well as deathlike trances. The end goal is to ultimately serve the community.

Indigenous or aboriginal rituals and ceremonial events encompass an extremely large scope because many groups do not adhere to the same practices. This course will specifically focus on three groups: Fon, Yoruba, and Zulu.

The Fon people of West Africa believe in Mawu (also spelled Mahu), a female divine creator. Her twin Lisa (a male) represents the sun, while Mawu represents the moon. Though there is no permanent site of worship, the Fon people pray to Mawu/Lisa.

Because this is a matriarchal religion, a Queen Mother presides over all communal ceremonial events, such as marriages and funerals.

The Fon practice vodun (spirit), more commonly known as vodou or voodoo in other parts of the world. Some better-known ritualist objects used for healing and spiritual growth are spirit-inhabited objects or talismans (known as fetishes) comprised of animal or human parts (Figure 3).

Fig. 3: Talisman Amulet Seal Juju Medicine Naija Jaz (Babalawo Orisha)

Regional neighbors of the Fon and believers of reincarnation of the familial line, the Yoruba believe in Olorun (Olodumare), their divine creator with which they will eventually unite through prayer and transcendence of the Iwa (personal character). An orisha is a deity possessing a specific attribute of Olorun, the supreme god. Some of the more prominent orisha include Yemoja, associated with the female protective mother and nature; Oshun, attributed with beauty and fertility; Shango, associated with virility and natural elements, like stones and fire; Eshu, associated with evil and trickery; and Orunmila, charged with the priesthood of overseeing Ifa, or the source of knowledge of humanity, illness, and purity.

Yoruba Babalawos (priests) function to assist believers in developing their Iwa (character) in order to grow spiritually, ultimately uniting with Olorun. These practitioners may use palm or kola nuts and cowrie shells as part of the divination process. The cowrie shell divination process involves invoking the orisha with any question before casting anywhere from 8 to 21 shells on a mat or the ground. The priest then interprets the pattern in order to answer the question.

The Yoruba have several festivals; the two that this course will delve into are the Yoruba Epa Masquerade and Gelede. The Yoruba Epa Masquerade involves participants wearing carved masks paying homage to important ancestors in their society. Masks depict figures from mothers and farmers to kings and priests. Gelede is an annual festival celebrating ancestral mothers, female deities, and elderly women in the community. This ceremony includes men wearing costumes and masks (Figures 4 and 5), playing music, dancing, and singing in order to appease and please the mothers so that they use their power for the positive good of the community.

Fig. 4: H.J. Drewal and M. T. Drewal, Yoruba Gelede Mask, Nigeria (1977) (University of Iowa)Fig. 5: Larry Dupont, Gelede Mask (Omo Kerin)

The Zulu, or “the people/children of the heavens,” comprise 10 million believers, the largest tribal group in South Africa. Like the West African Fon and Yoruba, the Zulu practice ancestor worship. The Zulu believe in unKulunkulu, the first man or possibly the creator god. Their worship includes animal sacrifices as well as drink offerings, particularly homemade beer. In return, the ancestor helps guide or bless the person who made the offer. Ancestors are known to manifest during times of illness or even in animal forms, such as snakes. If evil spirits cause problems in the community, the healer, known as a sangoma, will communicate with the ancestors using prayer or magic to remedy the issue.

Traditionally, the Zulu were buried, and this act is very significant to the Zulu. If incorrectly buried, the spirits of Zulu individuals may wander. The burial process for some regional peoples includes animal sacrifice and supplementing the burial with personal effects for the journey.