ENC 2102
Twenty-One Commonly Committed Fallacies
Adapted from Lindsey Wilson College’s Writing Center
1. Ad hominem
This trick, literally translated as “to the man,” subtly or overtly distorts a person's character, destroying
their credibility no matter how valid their argument is. "I was surprised you agreed with her. She's kind
of an extremist."
2. Faulty use of authority
Traditionally called Argumentum ad Verecundiam or Appeal to Authority. "It's the brand Oprah uses."
People often listen to someone famous or powerful, even to a celebrity who has no connection with
what's being endorsed.
3. Appeal to fear
This trick causes your audience to fear others and seek your protection. "Politician X will take away your
freedom of speech!"
4. Appeal to pity (or sympathy)
"I know I made a poor decision. But let's just look at how hard my job is." This allows manipulators to
avoid responsibility for something.
5. Appeal to popular passions
Traditionally called Argumentum ad Populum. This trick implies that the manipulator shares the same
views as the audience. "I know you'll all agree with this, ladies and gentlemen."
6. Begging the question
Traditionally called Petitio Principii, this fallacy leans on an argument that may not be true in the first
place. "I avoid those meetings; I don't want to be brainwashed."
7. Disinformation
Manipulators know that merely launching a rumor is sometimes enough to discredit a person. "Well I
don't know for sure whether she votes that way, but she does hang out with people who do."
8. False dilemma, False dichotomy (either/or)
"Either you agree with me or you hate me." A false dilemma assumes that only two options exist.
9. False analogy
"All I did was take a candy bar. Stop looking at me as if I started a war." This trick uses misleading
comparisons to make the arguer seem right.
10. Faulty statistics This involves manipulating numbers or quoting statistics from questionable sources
to gain the perception of validity. "A clinical study showed kids who had a filling breakfast of cereal X
improved their attentiveness by nearly 20 percent!" What we're not told, however, is that this
unpublished study was funded by the company that makes cereal X, and that the attentiveness of the
kids who ate the cereal was measured against that of kids given nothing but water.
Twenty-One Commonly Committed Fallacies
Adapted from Lindsey Wilson College’s Writing Center
11. Hasty generalization
This means rushing to conclusions based on incomplete information. “The traditional family is not a safe
and viable foundation for society. After all, consider the Menendez brothers, Lorena Bobbitt, and other
prominent cases we read about in the media involving violence in the traditional family.”
12. Ignoring the evidence
Traditionally called apiorism. We often ignore things we don't want to consider for fear they will
produce more work or further confusion. "Well, I don't care why she did it. It was wrong."
13. Loaded label or definition
Loaded labels or definitions use words that evaluate or have different connotations. Those who oppose
the “estate tax” have relabeled it the “death tax” in order to give it negative connotations without any
markers of class or wealth. This also works the other way, in case the trickster is defending questionable
actions. "That's crazy. Mike cheats all the time without getting punished, and you're hanging me out to
dry after messing up once."
14. Non sequitur
Translated as “it does not follow,” non sequitur refers to any claim that doesn’t follow from its premises
or is supported by irrelevant premises. “I should not receive a C in this course; I never get Cs.”
15. Poisoning the well
Arguers poison the well by discrediting an opponent or opposing view in advance. “Hector’s book, due
out next February, is nothing but a lame attempt to stir up business for the organization she chairs.”
16. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc
Meaning “after this, therefore because of this,” this fallacy happens when a sequential relationship is
mistaken for a causal relationship. “Cramming for a test really helps; I crammed for my psychology test
and got an A.”
17. Red herring A red herring is an emotionally charged issue brought up to divert attention from
something the manipulator wants to avoid. "You asked me why the unemployment rate has risen again,
but I'll tell you what's affecting this country's morale in even worse ways than that."
18. Shifting the burden of proof (fallacy of ignorance)
Manipulators know that having to prove an argument true makes their job more difficult; so they try to
shift that burden to their opponent. "You say she didn't do it. But there is no hard evidence to support
that idea."
19. Slippery slope
This implies that the end result of today's actions could be something terrible. "If I give you a raise, then
I have to give everyone a raise, and then the company will go bankrupt.”
Twenty-One Commonly Committed Fallacies
Adapted from Lindsey Wilson College’s Writing Center
20. Spin
Spin doctors use the media to positively represent their own viewpoints and encourage criticism of
others. For example, after a political debate, each side rallies to declare their version of the outcome,
hoping to spin the desired perception their way.
21. Straw man
"You say you want to reform the criminal justice system. What, do you want to free all the criminals?"
We do this all the time: take an argument we disagree with and mischaracterize it so it looks weak or
extreme, thus making our own side appear more reasonable