2(tomato)done
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CHAPTER 1
New World Encounters
Preconquest–1608
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AMERICAN STORIES
A History of the United States
First Edition
Brands Breen Williams Gross
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Native American Histories Before Conquest
- 20,000 years ago—Siberian hunters became first American inhabitants
- 14,000 years ago—humans reached tip of South America
- These Paleo-Indians did not suffer from many communicative diseases
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Routes of the First Americans
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The Environmental Challenge:
Food, Climate, and Culture
- Native Americans enjoyed an abundant supply of meat
- Some suggest they over-hunted and caused the extinction of several large species
- Climatic warming probably played a much bigger role
- 5000 years ago—agricultural revolution
- Crops included maize, squash, and beans
- Shift from nomadic hunting and gathering to permanent villages or large cities
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Mysterious Disappearances
- Anasazi culture—Chaco Canyon
- Sophisticated irrigation
- Well-built roads for transportation
- Adena and Hopewell peoples—Ohio Valley
- Large ceremonial mounds
- Extensive trade network
- Cahokia—Mississippi Valley
- Large ceremonial mounds
- Far-flung trade network
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Aztec Dominance
- Aztecs settled valley of Mexico
- Center of large, powerful empire
- Highly organized social and political structure
- Ruled through fear and force
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Eastern Woodland Cultures
- Atlantic coast of North America
- Native Americans lived in smaller bands
- Agriculture supplemented by hunting and gathering
- Likely were the first natives encountered by English settlers
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Locations of Major Indian Groups and Culture Areas in the 1600s
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A World Transformed
- Large numbers of whites profoundly altered native cultures
- The rate of change varied from place to place
- Native traditions changed radically for cultural survival
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Cultural Negotiations
- Diversity of language groups, ethnicities
- Place in society defined through kinship
- Communal, charismatic, sociopolitical formation
- Diplomacy, trade, war organized around reciprocal relationships
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Confederacies
of Eastern North America
- Huron—southern Ontario near Lakes Ontario and Erie
- Iroquois—central New York
- Powhattan—Chesapeake
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Threats to Survival: Trade
- Native Americans were eager for European trade
- They became dependent on, and indebted to, Europeans
- Commerce also influenced warfare patterns
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Threats to Survival: Disease
- Contact brought population decline among American Indians
- Cause: lack of resistance to epidemic disease
- Smallpox
- Measles
- Influenza
- Rate as high as 95%
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West Africa:
Ancient and Complex Societies
- Diversity of sub-Saharan cultures
- Islam
- Strong traditional beliefs
- A history of empires
- Mali
- Ghana
- Daily life centered on elder-ruled clans
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Trade Routes in Africa
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Beginnings of the
Slave Trade
- Fifteenth-century Portuguese charted sea lanes from Europe to sub-Saharan Africa
- Native rulers sold prisoners of war to Portuguese as slaves
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How Many Slaves?
- Seventeenth century—ca. 1000 Africans per year
- Eighteenth century—5.5 million transported to the Americas
- By 1860—ca. 11 million
- Before 1831, more Africans than Europeans came to the Americas
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Europe on the Eve of Conquest
- Tenth century—Leif Ericson settled “Vinland”
- Late fifteenth century—preconditions for overseas settlement attained
- Rise of nation-states
- Spread of new technologies
- Spread of old knowledge
- 1492—Columbus initiated large-scale European colonization
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Building New Nation-States
- Population growth after 1450
- “New monarchs” forged nations from scattered provinces
- Spain
- France
- England
- “Middle class” a new source of revenue
- Powerful military forces deployed
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Imagining a New World
- Spain the first European nation to achieve conditions for successful colonization
- Unified under Ferdinand and Isabella
- 1492—Jews and Muslims expelled
- Conquest of Canary Islands provided rehearsal for colonization
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Myths and Reality
- Columbus persuaded Queen Isabella to finance westward expedition to “Cathay”
- 1492—initial voyage
- Three subsequent voyages to find cities of China
- 1506—died clinging to belief he had reached the Orient
- Made possible Spanish dominion in America
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The Conquistadores
- Independent adventurers commissioned by Spanish crown to subdue new lands
- By 1512—major Caribbean islands decimated
- By 1521—Cortés destroyed Aztec empire
- 1539-1542—de Soto explored Southeast
- 1540-1542—Coronado explored Southwest
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Voyages of European Exploration
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From Plunder to Settlement
- Encomienda System rewarded Conquistadors
- Large land grants
- Indian inhabitants provided labor or tribute
- Appointed officials answered only to crown
- Catholic Church
- Protected Indian rights
- Performed mass conversions
- By 1650, half million Spaniards in New World
- Unmarried males intermarried
- Mixed-blood population emerged
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The French Claim Canada
- 1608—Samuel de Champlain founded Québec
- French empire eventually included
St. Lawrence River, Great Lakes, Mississippi - French crown makes little effort to foster settlement
- Fur trade underpinned economy
- Indians became valued trading partners
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The English Enter the Competition
- Claimed New World territory under Henry VIII
(r. 1509-1547) - England achieved preconditions for colonization under Elizabeth I
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Birth of English Protestantism
- Protestant Reformation played a major role in England’s rise to dominance
- 1517—Martin Luther sparked reform in Germany
- 1536—John Calvin’s Institutes published in Geneva
- Reformation pitted European Protestants against Catholics
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The English Reformation
- Tudor monarchs brought political unity
- Reformation under Henry Vlll (r. 1509-1547) strengthened Crown
- Protestant reform accelerated under Edward VI
(r. 1547-1553) - Death of Mary I (r. 1553-1558) cut short English Catholic Counter-Reformation
- Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) consolidated English Reformation
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Militant Protestantism
- Lutheran Reformation
- God speaks through Bible, not through Pope or priests
- Justification by faith alone for salvation
- Calvinist Reformation
- John Calvin stressed God’s omnipotence
- Predestination—some persons chosen by God for salvation
- Calvinist Christianity expanded in northern Europe
- France—Huguenots
- Scotland—Presbyterians
- England—Puritans
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Woman in Power
- Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) a very capable monarch
- Elizabeth introduced Via Media
- Protestant Doctrine
- “Catholic” Ritual
- Ended religious turmoil in England
- Elizabeth’s excommunication by Pope prompted Spanish crusade against England
- England aligned with Protestant nations against Catholic powers
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Religion, War, and Nationalism
- Spanish hostility made Elizabeth the symbol of English, Protestant nationhood
- Sea Dogs’ seizure of Spanish treasure made them English heroes
- Elizabeth’s subjects raided Spain’s American empire
- 1588—Spanish Armada defeated
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Irish Rehearsal for American Settlement
- English experiences in Ireland shaped how they would conquer the New World
- To the English, the Irish were wild and barbaric
- They would view Native Americans the same way
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English Conquest of Ireland
- Ireland was a laboratory for English colonization
- Irish viewed as backward
- English under Elizabeth seized Irish land
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English Brutality
- English ethnocentrism benign when Irish docile
- English employed brutal methods, such as massacring women and children, to crush frequent Irish resistance
- English adventurers compared Native Americans with “wild” Irish
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An Unpromising Beginning: Mystery at Roanoke
- Sir Walter Raleigh established Roanoke colony in 1584
- He named the region Virginia after the Virgin Queen
- The colony failed and Raleigh tried again in 1587
- The colonists disappeared without a trace and their fate remains a mystery
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Campaign to Sell America
- By 1600, no English settlements in New World
- Richard Hakluyt advertised benefits of American colonization
- Claimed that England needs American colonies
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