2.1 / 3.24
The "Be, Know, Do" Model of Leader Development Donald J. Campbell, Gregory J. Dardis, United States Military Academy
T he U.S. Army provides lead-
ership doctrine for all its
members in the form of a
unified leadership theory
familiar to virtually all their officers
and non-commissioned officers. The
foundation of this general leadership
theory is the Army's "Be, Know, Do"
(BKD) model of leader development
(LD). While the BKD model has
many elements in common with more
well-known academic approaches to
leadership and LD. the BKD model
has some distinctive emphases that set
it apart from these more conventional
treatments. This article examines the
BKD model, evaluating its strengths
and limitations, and then suggests
how organizations interested in
leadership development might adapt
the model to their own particular
circumstances.
26 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
In choosing the most appropriate procedures for developing leaders, an organization must t1rst determine what leadership precisely entails. Eor the U.S. Army, leadership is "intluencing peo- ple—by providing purpose direction and motiva- tion—while operating to accomplish the mission and improving the organization" {EM 22-100, 1999: 1-4). Tbe broadness of this defmition is noteworthy. It does not initially identify the pri- mary sources of influence or distinguish between potentially different influence sources, and one could easily substitute "'management'" for "leader- sbip" and still have a meaningful statement.
While such broadness downplays potential differences between leaders and managers in terms of motivation (Zaienick. 1977), operating perspectives (Bennis & Nanus. !98.'>) and empha- sized processes (Kotter, 1987). there may be little practical value in separating leaders and man- agers when it comes to development (e.g.. Bass. 1990; YukI, 1994). For tbe Army, the implications of a broad approach to leader development are enormous. Leader development H^^^B becomes synonymous with "whole person" development. Because indi- viduals influence others by their character, by their competence, and by tbeir actions (FM 22-100, 1999: viii), effective leader development must focus on the type of person an individual is ("Be"), the kinds of competencies he has ("Know"), and the kind.s of decisions he makes ("Do"). Put slightly differently. "becoming a leader involves developing all aspects of yourself (EM 22-100, 1999: 1-6).
Ft)r HRM practitioners, the BKD model warrants a great deal of attention, given its endorsement and large-scale use by a major, highly diverse organiza- tion whose mission requires tbe ongoing creation of new leaders. Shaped and modified by actual experience in developing officers and non-com- missioned officers in tbe different branches of the U.S. Army, various drafts and versions of the BKD iiKxlel have influenced Army leadership doctrine for over 50 years. Thus, the Army's lotig-lerm. continuing reliance on the model offers strong evi- dence of its robustness. Additionally, because it is the basis for actual leadership training at various organizational levels, the mode! necessarily elabo- rates on LD in specific detail and provides focused points for individuals to consider when executing LD lor themselves, their people, and tbeir organi- zation (FM 22-l(X): ix). With some exceptions
People are sensi-
tive to the values
and attributes
explicitly and
implicitly dis-
played by leaders.
(e.g.. McCauley. et al., 1998; McCall. et al.. 1988). tbis level of pragmatic, "how-to'" detail is rare in LD models.
The "Be, Know, Do" Model Tbe values, attributes, skills, and actions that
fomi the BKD model are necessarily interrelated, and tbe integration of these elements working together produces effective leadership. In this respect, each side of the BKD triangle can prop- erly be understood only in temis of the other two sides. Nonetheless, in the following sections, we discuss each component of the model separately for the sake of clarity.
Be Because the Army sees itself as a values-based
organization (FM 22-100: viii), the BKD model places significant emphasis on "character-based" leadership. This orientation assutiies tbat people are sensitive to the values and attributes explicitly
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ and implicitly displayed by leaders, and that they are at least partially influenced by the example leaders set. Thus, tbe specific values and attributes reflected in these potential examples are crucial elements of effective leadership, and require careful cultivation in the leader development process. At a minimum, the values and attributes cultivated must reflect the organization's mis- sion and vision.
The BKD model stresses tbis aspect of leader development under the label of "character," defined as tbe inner strength tbat gives a person "tbe courage to do wbat is right regardless of the circumstances or the consequences"' (EM 22-l(X): 1 -6). As noted, character consists of values and attributes. Values are ctucial to leader develop- tTient because values "tell" the leader what he needs to be. presumably guiding everyday actions. Additionally, institutionally-sbared values can form the very identity of the organization, binding together all members of the entetprise. As a result, the organization is much greater than the simple sum of its parts (FM 22-100: 2-2). The Army as an organization uses seven core values to discern right from wrong in any situation: loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service, honor, integrity, and per- sonal courage (see Exhibit I). All its members are expected to endorse these values.
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 27
Seven Core Values of the U.S. Army
Loyalty
Duty
Respect
Honor
Integrity
To bear true faith and allegiance to the U.S. Cotistitution. the Army, one's unit, and other soldiers
To fulfill one's obligations
To treat people as they should be treated
Selfless Service To put the welfare of the nation, the ArtTiy, and subordinates before one's own
To live up to all the Army values
To do what's right—legally and morally
Personal Courage To face fear, danger, or adversity (physical or moral)
Source: FM 22-100: 2-3-2-9
In addition to core values, the "Be" component of the model focuses on several groups of attrib- utes crucial for leadership, atid therefore for leader development. In the BKD model, attributes are defined as fundatnental qualities and character- istics of a person. Wbile the model acknowledges tbat sotne personal attributes are utichatigeable, it assumes tbat many others can be learned or cbanged. Tbe tnodel groups thtise attributes rele- vant to leadership into three categories: mental, physical, and emotional.
Mental. The model argue.s that leader develop- ment should focus on at least seven mental attrib- utes: will, self-discipline, initiative, judgment. self-cont'idence. intelligence, and cultural aware- ness. Will is the inner drive tbat compels individ- uals to keep going when they are exhausted and when it would be easier to quit. Self-discipline is the mastery of impulse that cotnes from tbe babit of doing the right thing regardless of conse- quences. Initiative is tbe ability to act wben there are no clear instructions. Judgment is the ability to size up a situation, determine what is itnpor- tant. and decide wbat needs to be done. Self-con- fidence is the individual's belief that he will act correctly and properly in any situation, including those that are stressful and atiibiguous. Ititelligenee is tbe ability to think, learn, and reflect, and then to apply wbat bas been learned. Cultural awareness is sen,sitivity to the different backgrounds of individuals and to the customs and traditions of different countries (FM 22-100: 2-10-2-15).
Physical. Three attributes come under tbis umbrelkt: health fitness, physical fitness, and
professional bearing. Tbe BKD model argues that individuals can develop these attributes. Health fitness encompasses the various personal actions a person can undertake to maintain health (e.g.. practicing good hygiene, avoiding substance abuse). Pbysical fitness is tbe individual's ability to engage in various demanding physical activities for appropriate lengths of time, without undue stress or tbe tieeJ for extended recovery periods. Professional bearing refers to tbe individual's ability to convey a professional demeanor, project- ed tbrtiugh tbe person's appearance and carriage (FM 22-100: 2-16-2-17).
Emotional. The final attributes considered by the BKD model are self-control, balance, and stability. Tbe model considers these attributes important for leader development because tbey help tbe leader to influence otbers and make cor- rect ethical cboices. Self-eontrol is the ability to display tbe emotion and passion required to tap into the emotions of others. Similarly, balance is tbe ability to display the appropriate emotion for the situation. Stability is the ability to retnain lev- elheaded under pressure and fatigue, and to display the emotions tbe individual wants others to display (FM 22-100: 2-17 - 2-18). Exhibit 2 summarizes the three sets of leader attributes.
Know Tbe second cotnponent of tbe BKD model
focuses on competence: wbat a leader must know (in tbe sense of both "know what" and "know how"). In (he model, competence links character (knowing the right tbitig to do) and action (doing or influencing others to do tbe rigbt thing). In
28 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
Three Sets of Leader Attributes in the BKD Model
Mental Attributes
Will
Self-Discipline
Initiative
Judgment
Self-Confidence
intelligence
Cultural Awareness
Physical Attributes
Health Fitness
Physical Fitness
Profes.sional Bearing
Emotional Attributes
Self-Contro!
Balance
Stahility
The inner drive that compels individuals to keep going
Mastery of impulse coming from habitually doing the right thing
Ability to act when there are no clear instructions
Ability to size up a situation and decide what needs lo be done
Individual's belief that he will act correctly in any situation
Ability to think, leam, and reflect, and apply what has been learned
Sensitivity to the different backgrounds of individuals and to the customs and
traditions of different countries
The various actions a person can undertake to maintain health
Ability to engage in demanding physical activities without undue stress
Ability to convey a professional demeanor projected through the
person's appearance and carriage
Ability to display the proper amount of emotion and passion
Ability to display the right emotion for the situation
Ability to remain levelheaded under pressure and fatigue, and to display the
emotions the individual wants others to display
Source: FM 22-1^:2-11 -2-18.
terms of leader development, the model presumes that leaders are not only responsible for being personally competent, but that they are also responsible for the competence of their subordi- nates. The model argues that competence results from hard, realistic training, and that three areas are particularly relevant for leader development (a fourth area covered by the model relates to combat skills, which are outside the scope of this article). Effective leaders must know the interper- sonal, conceptual, and technical skills that allow them to inOuence others.
Interpersonal Skills Competence in this area means that the indi-
vidual knows how to deal with people. From a leader development perspective, the BKD model underscores the importance of helping leaders acquire general skills In coaching, teaching, coun- seling, motivating, and empowering. In particular, the model emphasizes developing communication skills in order to convey one's intent effectively and motivate others.
The BKD model, consistent with other
approaches to leadership (e.g.. Katz, 1955; Kat/- & Kahn, 1978: 538-559). assumes that situational demands influence the types of skills a leader needs in specific circumstances. Given its devel- opmental orientation, the model distinguishes between the interpersonal skills needed for indi- viduals at the lower and middle levels of the organization and those needed at senior or top levels. For individuals engaged in "direct" leader- ship (i.e., first-line, one-on-one leadership), developmental efforts should ensure that the individual knows the implications associated with one-way and two-way communication, with active listening, and with nonverbal communica- tion. At this level, the individual should also understand the need for a leader to supervise the activities of subordinates, and to know how to strike a balance between checking too much and not checking enough. The model suggests that individuals at this level need to know how to do effective counseling, i.e., produce a gt)al-oriented action outline for helping a subordinate overcome a problem or achieve an individual or organiza- tional coal (FM 22-! 00: 4-2 - 4-6).
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 29
The BKD model argues that the interpersonal skills needed at the lower level are still rei|uired at the mid-organizational level, differing in degree but not in kind. Because leaders at this level primarily influLMice others Indirectly (Ihrough the policies they e.stablish and the climate they create), ihe BKD model also contends Ihat such individuals should know and understand psychology and the human dimension. Dcvelopmenfal efforts should concentrate on expanding insight intti human mdtivalion and in encouraging Initiative. Such efforl should alsit focus on enhancing the individual's persuasive communication skills, given the frequeni need at this le\el lo overcome resistance and build sup- port. In terms of supervising, the individual needs to develop insighi inio when statistics and reports arc adequate mechanisms, and when personal visits and \erbal interactions are more useful or appropriate (FM 22-100: 6-3 - 6-4). ^ ^ ^ ^
Indi\iduals engaged in "strateyic"' leadership at the top orguni/ational level require different leadership skills than tht)se at the direct or mid- organizational level. The BKD model rellects these differences in the inter- personal skills it emphasizes for development. While communication retnains a critical skill, individuals at this level must develop an apprecia- tion for how the wide arras of staff and operational componenls (inter- acting with each other and with exter- nal agencies) complicate communica- tion in an environment aliead\ uncer- tain and unpredictable. Individuals at this level must also appreciate the heightened importance of sytnbolic commtuiicalion. and become sensi- tive to the reality that their messages may have to persuade external as well as internal audiences. Skills in using dialogue, in negotiating, and in knowing how to achieve consensus must also be developed. The BKD model underscores how individuals at this level need to learn how to select subordinates, balance various strengths and weaknesses, and ensure an appropriate mix of Imagination, judgmenl, and practicality {FM 22- KH): 7-2-7-6).
Conceptual Skills riicsc skills include competence in handling
ideas, thoughts, and concepls. Al the direct leadership level, developmental efforts should concentrate on four areas: critical reasoning.
Leaders permit
subordinates to
exercise initiative
when serendipi-
tous opportuni-
ties arise, or
when reality
forces changes in
the original plan.
creative thinking, ethical reasoning, and reflective thinking. Individuals must know how lo find causes, arrive at justifiable conclusions, make good judgments, and learn from experience (i.e.. Cl itical reasoning^. They also need to learn lo use imagination to solve unfamiliar problems, or familiar problem^ In new ways (i.e., creative thinking). Additionally, because the model pre- sumes that leaders at every level strive to do the right things for ihe right rea.sons, and because determining the "Yiglil" thing is often extremely complex, the BKD model includes ethical reason- ing as a skill warranting development. The model also includes reflective thinking as a developmen- tal target: The individual must learn how to accept performance feedback from multiple sources, assess it, apply it, and puz/le out why things worked or did not work (FM 22-1 (K): 4-6-4-10).
Al the mid-organi/alional level. Ihc model ^^^^^- contends that leader development
invokes helping iiidi\ iduals know how lo establish intent, filter informa- tion, and understand dynamic organi- zational systems. By effectively establishing "intent" (i.e.. the leader's personal expression of a project's end state, itichiding the key tasks that must be accomplished to achieve it), leaders permit subordinates lo exer- cise initiative when serendipitous opportunities arise, or when reality forces changes in ihe original plan. Additionally, the BKD model pre- sumes Ihat mid-organi/ational leaders deal with tremendous amounts of
intbrmalion. Consequently. de\eh)pniental effort should also focus on helping them discover and articulate the kinds of information they need for conlrolling their units and accomplishinji tlieir projects. The model argues that individuals at this level need to know how lo conceptualize an orga- nization as a set of interacting systems, under- standing how these systems work together, and how using or modifyinj: one system affects the others (FM 22-100:6-5 -6-7).
At the top of the organization, leader develop- ment should concentrate on helping individuals know how to en\ ision, know hnw to ile\ elop frames nf reference, and know how lo deal with uncertainty and ambiguity. The BKD model assumes top leaders spend significant time designing inspiring visions for their organiza- tions, so they must know how to craft, from a complex mixture of ideas, facts, conjeelure. and
30 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
personal experience, a compelling image of wbat tbeir organization needs to be. Additionally, they need to know how to create a comprehensive frame of reference that encompasses their organi- zation and the strategic environment in whicb it operates. Developmental eftotts should help them acquire the ability to examine events and discern patterns missed by others. Tbese efforts mttst also help tbem develop the skill to identify information most relevant to a strategic situation, and enable tbem to infer the likely consequences of interven- tions (or non-intervention). Strategic leaders should know how to handle uncertainty and ambiguity, by expanding tbeir frame of reference to fit a situation ratber tban by reducing a situa- tion to fit preconceptions. Developmental efforts must also help them become proficient at analyz- ing complicated cause-and-e fleet relationships in the face of incomplete information (FM 22-100: 7-7-7-10).
Technical Skills In the BKD model, technical skill refers to
skill with tbe "tbings" (e.g.. equipment, systems) necessary for achieving tbe work unit's goals and objectives. At tbe level of direct leadership, the model focuses on developing the individual's competence in knowing tbe primary equipment used for accomplisbing major unit tasks, and in knowing bow to operate this equipment (FM 22- 100: 4-11 -4-12). At the mid-organizational level, the model argues that developmental efforts should help individuals maintain critical, direct- leader skills, and also help develop proficiency in the skill of "resourcing." i.e.. aggressively managing and balancing equiptnent, facilities. budgets, and people to best ensure organizational effectiveness. Individuals at this level should also receive help developing their ability to discern and predict tbe second and third order effects of their own actions on the organization's culture and climate {FM 22-100: 6-9 - 6-10).
At the strategic level, the model identifies two technical skills that warrant developmental atten- tion: efficacy in "strategic art" (i.e., the formula- tion, coordination, and applicatit)n of ways and means to promote and defend organizational interests) and efficacy in leveraging technology to obtain or exploit a decisive competitive advan- tage. (Tbe tbird skill, outside the scope of this discussion, relates to political/military objectives.) A key assumption of the model is that leaders shape the future by translating concepts into action. Developing individuals" understanding of
emerging technologies, specifically as tbey migbt apply to resourcing, allocating, and exploiting systems under tbe leaders' control, is also an important component of tbe model (FM 22-100: 7-10 - 7-11). Exhibil 3 summarizes the various skills leaders must know and develop.
Do The last component of the BKD model deals
with the normal actions of a leader. Tbe model groups these actions into three categories (FM 22-100:2-26-2-28):
1. Influencing: Making deci.sions. communicating those decisions, and motivating people;
2. Operating: Accomplishing the unit's immediate mission, through planning, executing, and assessing;
3. Improving: Inereasing the organization's capabil- ities to accomplish future goals and objectives, by developing subordinates, building teams, and fostering learning and self-improvement.
The model recognizes that these broad cate- gories are not mutually exclusive, and many specific actions clearly have implications simulta- neously spanning all three areas. The model also presumes that the "be" and know" components form tbe basis for the "do" ct)mpt)nent: e.g.. in infiuencing others, the individual may draw upon many of the interpersonal skills discussed above.
Influencing For direct leadership, influencing actions
normally require the individual to communicate using good oral, written, and listening skills, to .solve problems and make deeisions using logical reasoning and sound judgment, and to motivate otbers by empowering and using positive and negative reinforcement (FM 22-100: .'i-l - 5-7).
At the mid-organizational level, the model continues to emphasize communication as a pri- mary influencing action. Because leaders at this level typically move rapidly from one project to another, communications must be accurate right from the start; therefore, the model argues that mid-level leaders must thoroughly know their own persona! idiosyncrasies and biases, and must clearly know what message they want to send. Then, they must know the characteristics of the communication environment, including tbe pref- erences and idiosyncrasies of their bosses, ibe idiosyncrasies and biases of their subordinates, and tbe biases and limitations of relevant staff groups. They must also know the communication
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 31
Skills Leaders Must Know and Develop
Interpenonal SklMi
Direct
Communicating: Two way
Communicaiing: Nonverbal
Listening actively
Supervising
Counseling
Mid-Organizational
Readiniz people
Arousing niDiiviition
Encouraging Initiative
Persuading
Baliincing supervisory styles
Conceptual Skills
Strategic
Communicating: Complex
Communicating: Symbolic
Generating dialogue
Negotiating
Achieving consensus
Selecting subordinates
Reasoning criiically
Thinking creatively
Reasoning ethically
Reflective tliinkiiig
Kslablishing inlent
Filtering information
Grasping dynamic systems
Technical Skills
Envisioning Creating frames of reference Dealing with ambiguity
Knowing unit equipment Operating unit equipment
Resourcing Seeing 2nd and .Vd order eftects
Efficacy in strategic art Leveraging technology
network most appropriate for a given type ol' message.
Al ihis level, the BKD model argues that intluenciu^ through decision making means the individual must act to pre-empt problems, not just react to solve them. In terms of inlluencing through motivation, the individual acts to create and sustain an ethical and supportive climate. This involves framitig mistakes as learning opportunities, creating cohesive teams hy devel- oping mist among subordinates, and encouraging openness and frankness among organizational members (FM 22-100: fv!2 - 6-17).
Al the sirategic level, the BKD model assumes leaders aet to influence both the organization and its external environment. They accomplish this by identifying trends. oppt)ilunitie.s. and throats affecting the organization, then using these information threads to weave and communicate a vision that gains widespread support for guiding the organization and motivating a broad organiza- tional audience. In temis of decision-making., the nnxlel contends that individuals at this lc\e! influ- ence through the use ol' the substantial conceptual resources they have available in the collegial net- works that surround them, with whose members they can share thoughts and plans for the institu- tion's ongoing success. Strategic leaders also inlluence through motivating, by shaping the
organization's culture. They cultivate a challeng- ing, supportive institutional culture while recog- nizing that large organizations have multiple subcultures that require integration. The model argues that strategic leaders accomplish this by emphasizing the best in each subculture, and by ensuring that subcultures complement (rather than compete with) each other. They also ensure that the culture suppt)rts the values inherent in their organizational vision (h'M 22-l(K): 7-13 -7-17).
Operalinji Operating actions focus on planning anil
preparing, executing, and assessing. For direct leadership, the model contends that individuals develop their capabilities in the.se areas by prepar- ing detailed and feasible proposals, executing these proposals, and then objectively assessing the efficiency and effectiveness of tbe execution. These processes in\(>lve the individual in setting goals, maintaining standards, conducting in- process and after-action reviews, and assessing ihe strtMigths and limitations of subordinates (FM 22-100: .^-S-5-13).
At the mid-organizational level, the BKD IIUKICI assumes that leaders typically work through their subordinates and require a broad organizational perspecti\e. Thus, operating actions at this level focus on .sy.sicnis planning
32 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
and preparation. Actions involving the individual in building a creative, thinking staff (i.e., by choosing the right people, setting them challenging problems, and giving them clear guidance) are also developmentally important. Because leaders at this level cannot individually control and personally direct all the activities necessary for mission accomplishment, the model argues that willingness to delegate and to empower subordi- nates warrants developmental attention. Similarly, the leader's ability to assess situations accurately and have good intuition (based on experience and learning) about the reliability and validity of vari- ous information sources are also essential aspects of leader development (FM 22-100: 6-1S-6-24).
At the strategic level, individuals perform many of the same planning, executing, and assessing actions as their subordinate leaders, but at a higher level and with the complications of inter-organizational relationships thrown in. The BKD model assumes that the fundamental requirements of strategic-level planning remain grounded in establishing priorities ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ and communicating decisions. The large number of relevant actors who can intluence the organization itieans that the strategic leader needs a sub- stantial capacity for handling multi- ple, conflicting demands, and for see- ing situations from the perspective of these other important organizational actors. Executing actions at this level centers on allocating resources, with the individual making tough decisions about program and project priorities. Such actions may also involve the individual in working out priority differences with partnering or client organizations.
Because strategic leaders must engage in envi- ronmental assessment, developmental efforts should help individuals at this level first assess themselves (their leadership style, their distinctive strengths, etc.) and then their operational environ- ment. In assessing their organization, leaders need pertbrmance indicators to gauge the effectiveness of their communication across various organiza- tional levels, and to evaluate the effectiveness of the various systems and processes they have put in place (FM 22-100: 7-18 - 7-21). So, developmen- tal attention focused on these areas is appropriate.
Improving The focus here is on the actions leaders take to
leave the organization better than they found it.
Individuals at this
level should help
their subordi-
nates make the
leap to thinking
at the highest
levels.
The BKD model argues that these actions gener- ally involve developing people, building teams. and encouraging ongoing learning. For direct leadership, the model emphasizes actions geared to developing subordinates by providing formal training opportunities and by providing appropri- ately challenging operational assignments. Additionally, individuals at this level need lo teach and mentor subordinates personally, and to engage in coaching and developmental counsel- ing. These individuals must also focus action on building and improving teams, groups, and units. They must initiate actions aimed at fostering both self-learning and organizational learning, by cre- ating a climate that is supportive of learning (FM 22-l(X): 5-13-5-27).
At the mid-organizational level, tbe leader's own development involves developing the leader- ship capacity of others. Thus, the model contends that leader actions should continue to revolve around growing subordinate leaders. In doing this, the leader must examine and articulate the goals ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ g of the organization's leadership
development program, must assess the specific developmental needs of appropriate subordinates, and must act to ensure that development occurs purposefully rather than haphazardly.
Additionally, the model empha- sizes that improving actions continue to include the building of solid, effec- tive teams, so giving individuals opportunities to create such teams is important, Learning actions at this level involve experiences in reacting
lo failure, and in encouraging the success of oth- ers. The model contends that learning how to draw lessons from these positive and negative experiences forms an important basis for future organizational improvement (FM 22-l(X): 6-25 - 6-29).
At the strategic level, improving represents investment for the long haul, and requires a will- ingness to experiment and innovate. Developing actions center on mentoring, where the strategic leader develops subordinates by shai'ing his per- spective and experience. It also involves helping subordinates develop themselves, by guiding them in what to study, whom to watch, where to focus, and how to proceed. The BKD model argues that individuals at this level should help their subordinates make the leap to thinking at the highest levels, and that they should endeavor to pass on not Just knowledge but also wisdom.
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 33
Institutionally, developing actions center on the programs, projects, and priorities that the leader champions: Committing money and time to one program and not to another is a concrete indicator of what is valuable and woiih pursuing.
Building actions at this level center on creating change and innovation. The model argues that strategic leaders must be change-proactive: They must lead change. They do this by identifying what is needed and then by ereating and resourc- ing the systems needed to bring about the change. In terms of learning actions, these individuals must create (by their example and resourcing decisions) a culture that encourages both the individual and the organization to leam. The BKD model suggests that the actions associated with this thrust include emphasizing analyzing past organizational successes and failures, institution- alizing post-project and after-action review proce- dures, and encouraging the creation and use of future-focused models and simulations (FM 22- 100: 7-22 - 7-26). Consequently, the BKD model
implies that developmental activity should emphasize exposure to all these activities. Exhibit 4 summarizes the various actions a leader must execute effectively.
Strengths and Limitations of the BKD Model
The BKD model represents the Army's inte- gration of the substantial body of basic research and scholarly literature focused on leadership and leadership development. While it presents a com- prehensive, prescriptive framework for leader development (LD), the model as outlined in FM 22-100 is not the outcome of a traditional research review and analysis. As a practical man- ual meant to guide the thinking and actions of Army leaders at different organizational levels, FM 22-100 merely provides the model and some reasoning underlying its various components. In the following section, we detail further the BKD model's strengths and weaknesses.
Aetions Leaders iMust Do Effeetively
Influencing Actions
Direct Speak and write well Listen effectively Solve problems Reason logically Use Judgment Empower subordinates
Mid-Organizational
Communicate accurately
Pre-empt problems
Create a supportive climate
Create cohesive teams
Develop trust
Encourage learning
Operating Actions
Strategic
Identify SWOTs
Communicate a vision
Develop collegial networks
Shape culture
Integrate subcultures
Champion organizational
values
Prepare plans and proposals
Set goals and standards
Execute proposals
Conduct evaluations
Assess subordinates
Engage in systems planning
Build a staff
Delegate and empower
Assess situations
Evaluate information sources
Improving Actions
Establish organizational
priorities Prioritize resource allocation
Resolve conflicting goals Negotiate with other agencies Check performance indicators
Provide formal training Offer challenging assignments Mentor subordinates Coach and teach
Build teams Counsel developmental!y
Foster learning
Articulate an LD process Assess organizational LD needs Empower team creation Draw lessons from failures Draw lessons from success Encourage others' success Grow leaders
Experiment and innovate Mentor subordinates
Pass on wisdom Resource long-range programs
Lead change
Create a learning culture Encourage a future-focus
34 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
Strengths of the Model The BKD model has at least two strengths that
set it apart from other approaches to LD. First, the model offers a comprehensive framework for conceptuali/ing LD across the entire spectrum of an individuars working career. The model provides a consi.stent and logically compelling lens for examining potential LD requirements at entry-, mid-, and senior-organizational positions. The lens it provides is multi-faceted, in that the model cotisiders LD not just from the traditional "skills" perspective, but from a "whole person" perspective, to include the person's value.s, attrib- ute.s. and specific behaviors and action.s.
Typical LD approaches emphasize one or another of these areas: e.g.. developing an indi- vidual's task competencies and problem-solving capacities, communicating and transmitting visions and organizational values (Hollenbeck & McCall, 1999), or developing personal insight and self-awareness (Day, 2001; McCauley. et al.. 1998). In a single configuration, the BKD model systematically integrates all these areas.
Second, the model's heavy emphasis on the role of individual values, attributes, and personal character in LD is a singular contribution. While viiiually all LD approaches place some degree of emphasis on intra-personal development as it relates to LD. the emphasis is generally non-spe- cific, simply underscoring the need for individual self-awareness and self-insight (Day. 2001). When specific values have been considered (e.g., Howell & Avolio, 1992: Thompson & Strickland, 2003: 434-435: Puffer. 1999), they are .sometimes implicitly presented as setting the groundwork for corporate values and culture, rather than as ends in themselves. In contrast, the BKD model explicitly shares the orientation put forth by Bennis (1999) and Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) that a leader's character must hinge on integrity. on a '"moral compass" that guides the individual's decision-making.
On a practical level, the strength of the BKD model is its continuing endorsement and use by tbe Army. As noted earlier, the model has shaped Army leadership doctrine for over 50 years, and the model remains the bedrock of Army thinking on LD.
Limitations of the Model The BKD model has some weaknesses. First, as
noted earlier. FM 22-100 was not intended as a scholarly document and the argument it makes is prescriptive rather than analytical. While the model
clearly draws on research findings, scholarly sources are not specifically referenced. Consequently, support for the BKD model rests primarily on the rea.sonableness of its internal logic, rather than on compelling empirical evidence.
Second, because the model's empirical founda- tion is obscured, some of its elements may appear arbitrary. This is evident in the model's "Be" component. Although the model's basic position (i.e.. that a leader's "character" intluences indi- viduals) seems reasonable, the jump to defining character in terms of the specific values and attributes contained in Exhibits 1 and 2 is less so. Why select these particular values and attributes? Do they represent characteristics that are univer- sally desirable'.' Do they represent characteristics that enhance influence to a greater degree than others? Are there other vaiues and attributes that the model might include? The specific selection of relevant values is highly complicated, and the BKD model does not address this difficulty. Explicit empirical criteria for determining the skills and actions to emphasize are also absent in the model's other two components.
Third, the model assumes LD is a cumulative experience (progressing from the direct to the mid-organi/ational to the strategic level) and occurs over the individual's entire professional career. The effectiveness of the LD program diminishes for both parties when individuals miss stages or leave the organization early. Yet the BKD model's assumed career pattern (where individuals have their entire working experience in one institution) is becoming increasingly rare. Some individuals may find the model's strong emphasis on molding character inappropriate, and see such efforts not as LD but as indoctrination.
Alternatives to the BKD Model
In addition lo examining a model in terms of its own strengths and weaknesses, it is often helpful to evaluate the model against alternative conceptualizations. Here we briefly contrast the BKD model with two other approaches to LD: the "event and lesson" framework and the "incre- mental influence" approach.
The "Event and Lesson" Alternative The "event and lesson" approach (McCall. et
al.. 1988: McCauley. et al., 1998) contends that, while development arises from a host of sources, the most powerl'ul LD experiences are events that happen on the job itself. These events typically
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 35
contain three common elements: "assessment." "challenge." and "support." That is. effective LD experiences are events rich in assessment infor- mation, thus allowing individuals to gauge their currenl progress and performance against their desired progress and perfbnnunce. They are also rich in challenge, pushing individuals to question their strategies, their frattieworks, and their skills, and stretching them lo learn und develop new capacities. They are rich in support, in helping individuals handle (he stresses associated with development, and indicating that efforts to learn and grow are tmly valued. The lessons individuals learn from such events increase their self-aware- ness and self-contldence. enhance thoir ahility to adopt a broader, systems perspective, promote their ability to think creatively and leam, and facilitate their ability to work in teams and groups (McCauley. etal,. 1998: 4-21). Overall, the BKD model and the "event and lesson" approach clear- ly share a similar LD emphasis on ^^^^^M self-awareness, interpersonal skills. systems perspective, and learning. The BKD model appears to be broad- er and more systematic, picking up and elaborating on ideas shared in common by both LD approaches.
the comprehensive, "whole person" approach found in the BKD model.
Specifically, LD becomes the acquisition of particular qualities and skills (independent of the individual's positional resources) that result in incremental influence and thus enhance a person's ability to engage in true leadership exchanges. These qualities and skills provide the "capital" needed for leadership, and LD undertakings are effective to the degree they give individuals access to this capital. Specifically, this approach argues that LD efforts should center on the devel- opment of personal qualities that enhance trust, on problem-defining and problem-solving abili- ties, and on communicative and inspirational skills (Camphell. et al., 2003). Overall, while substantial aspects of this approach clearly overlap with the BKD model, the incremental influence approach is less detailed and compre- hensive.
Leadership is
Applying BKD To Other Organizations
interpersonal
influence over
and above the
The "Incremental Influence Alternative
Another approach to LD rests on the "iticremental influence"' formula- tion of leadership (Campbell, et al., 2(K)3). In this view, leadership is interpersonal influence over and above the influence that stems from a person's positional authority. Positional power (and the rewards and sanctions associated with the posi- tion) represents iuanai;cri(il influence, while lead- ership implies that the individual can tap into an extra reservoir of influence ahove the positional.
This orientation captures the essence of leader- ship as a process of influencing the activities of others toward some defined goal, while conceptu- ally separating leadership from other goal-direct- ed, inteipersonal inlluence processes. Additionally, the orientation captures popular notions of leader- ship, involving follower commitment extending beyond that which would seem warranted hy the nature and characteristics of the situation itself. From an LD perspective, the notion of leadership as incremental influence provides the foundation on which to base a more foeused view of LD than
influence that
stems from a
person's position-
al authority.
As one of the most comprehensive and integrated approaches to LD avail- able, the BKD model offer firms inter- ested in LD an impressive foundation lor approaching LD issues and prob- lems. For companies wanting to adapt Ihe BKD approach to their siiuaiion, the model implies a two- pronged strategy. First, an organiza- lion must get clear on what it wants 10 develop, and then it must get clear
on how to develop what it wants, Tlie BKD approach provides guidance in both areas.
In lernis of "what" (i.e.. the specific qualities and characteristics leaders should have), the model broadly implies that firms need to ft)cus on perst)nal characteristics (Be), skills and com- petencies (Know), und actions (Do). In each of these areas, as we discussed earlier, the model emphasizes sets of highly specific characteristics and qualities that one major organization (i.e., the U.S. Army) wants to develop in its leaders. Not every organization may wish to develop every attribute and skill listed in Exhibits 2 through 4. Particular firms, given their own specific goals and organizational cnvirt)nments, may need to add and subtract from these lists, and certainly the relative emphases organizations place on specific attributes and abilities will differ.
36 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
Nonetheless, the BKD framework is a ready-made and useful template lor guiding the firm's initial LD efforts.
For the second prong, dealing with how to develop the selected qualities and attributes, FM 22-100 offers substantial insight into the processes underlying the BKD model. Four basic develop- mental processes are paramount (Campbell, et al., 2003):
1. Modeling and mentoring: 2. Hands-on experiences and job assignments; 3. Systematic feedback and developmental
evaluation: and 4. Self-reflection and evaluation.
In the U.S. Army's circumstances, these processes are systematic and ongoing throughout the leader's career. Take, for example, an individ- ual beginning his Army career as a plebe (fresh- man) at the U.S. Military Academy. During these four years, the primary developmental emphasis is on "Be,"* and the cadet has substantial interaction with a highly .select group of outstanding military officers. While acting as college instructors in the classroom, these officers serve as role models for the cadets (highlighting Army values and affirming Army traditions) and are available as mentors. Of course, simultaneous with this values-socialization process, during these years cadets also begin to develop along the Know and Do components of the model. This is accomplished through hands-on experiences (e.g.. cadet "chain-of-command" responsibilities, special summer military assign- ments) and through normal college classroom activities, which are deliberately structured to provide a high level of systematic, developmental, and evaluative feedback.
After graduation, the Know and Do compo- nents of the BKD model increasingly come to the developmental forefront. As the individual moves through a pre-planned, well-thought-out progression of increasingly responsible jobs, the work assignments them.selves function to devel- op the various interpersonal, conceptual, and technical skills required of a leader at that level. The junior officer develops needed leadership qualities by executing both command and staff responsibilities under the watchful guidance of more senior officers.
The Army's performance feedback systems (i.e.. Officer Evaluation Reports. After-Action Reviews) come into prominence here. Designed to emphasize areas underscored by the BKD model, the performance feedback systems ensure
officers maximize learning from their job assign- ments, by receiving substantial evaluative (i.e., OERs) and developmental (i.e., AARs) feedback from senior officers they typically admire and respect. Complementing and enriching the indi- vidual's work experiences, the Army periodically returns the officer to school (e.g.. Command and General Staff College, Army War College) at significant career transitions. These breaks ensure officers have periodic opportunities for self- retlection and self-evaluation that go much deeper than the workplace normally allows.
For other organizations, the particular details of how the U.S. Army implements the BKD model are significantly less important than tbe basic developmental processes these details reflect. While few firms have the resources for establishing a four-year values-socialization pro- gram fbr devek)ping leaders, most companies can identify a cadre of organizationally significant individuals who can model and reinforce the values and attitudes the firm desires in its leaders. Additionally, this cadre may also serve as a pool of potential mentors, whose guidance and counsel developing individuals might draw on. either for- mally or informally.
Similarly, few organizations will have a career progression system as detailed or as sophisticated as the Army's. Nonetheless, with some minimal thought and planning, most organizations can establish job tracks that build upon each other, and ensure that individuals get hands-on experi- ences that are relevant to the effective execution of the current job and are crucial leaming experi- ences for developing the leader skills and abilities needed at the next organizational level. As with the Army, such firms could enhance the develop- mental value of these job experiences by ensuring that their pertbrmance appraisal systems anchor on desired leader qualities and skills, and are capable of supplying substantial, meaningful guidance to the developing individual, preferably in a minimally threatening manner.
Firms can also supplement such intemal devel- opmental experiences with appropriate external "schooling" experiences, either in the form of formal university degree programs or through reputable intensive, off-site workshops and courses (e.g., Center for Creative Leadership offerings). These external experiences can not only develop particular leader skills and abilities, they can also provide individuals with relevant feedback in a less threatening environment than the workplace. For many individuals, these extemal experiences
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 37
provide a natural time for self-re flection and evaluation, specifically centered on analyzing and understanding their own particular leadership strengths and limitations.
The BKD model may still have something to offer small organizations with highly limited resources and truncated career opportunities. Simply by vividly codifying their unstated, implicit views of the ideal leader, these firms can make substantial inroads in addressing leader development issues. For example, the detailed description and explanation of the BKD model in FM 22-100 superbly present to the developing leader a picture of what "good" leadership actual- ly looks like. Throughout the presentation and discussion of each of the three components of the model, FM 22-100 highlights the conceptual material with extremely engaging, specific vignettes illustrating how a leader demonstrated the quality, skill, or action under ^ ^ B ^ ^ consideration. In st>me cases, the vignettes center on well-known his- torical figures; in others, they center on relatively anonymous individuals.
For instance, in illustrating vari- ous Army values discus.sed in the text, the manual vividly portrays an actual combat incident involving a sniper team in Somalia. This two- man team volunteered for an extremely hazardous rescue operation to protect several downed and criti- cally wounded helicopter crews. After insertion into the fire zone, the two team members first had to fight
These individuals
acted on several
Army values:
loyalty to fellow
soldiers, duty
to stand by them,
personal courage
to act, and self-
less service.
specifically the factors he weighed in making his "go/no-go" determination. The text then under- scores the lesson a developing leader needs to draw: At this level, decision-making is .so complex, there is a potential temptation to analyze endlessly: on the other hand, incomplete analysis and pre- mature action are also potentially disastrous. Thus, it is crucial for a strategic leader to recog- nize the correct moment to act (FM 22-100: 7- 14). This ability is developed incrementally, and requires the individual to reflect on and actively leam frtjin prior decision-making experiences at the mid-organizational and lower leadership levels.
While traditional organizations may not have available a riveting stock of life-or-dealh leader vignettes, even a small firm could generate a tai- lored leadership manual, illustrating particularly desired leader qualities, characteristics, and skills with its own selection of carefully crafted ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ vignettes about company (or industry)
heroes, stories, and traditions. Ceiiainly a tailored leadership manual cannot substitute fbr actually practic- ing the various qualities, skills, and actions highlighted by the BKD model. But. in the absence of actual experience, vicarious learning (i.e., assimilating ideas, attitudes, and ori- entations by paying attention to the experiences of similar others) may foster some positive development. Allcrnatively, the "event and lesson"* approach and the "incremental influ- ence" approach to LD are also less resource-intensive developmental
to reach their wounded comrades, and then had to drag them to relative safety. The two members continued to fight to protect the crews until they had depleted their ammunition and were them- selves fatally wounded. The text then makes the point that these individuals acted on several Army values: loyalty to fellow soldiers, duty to stand by them, personal courage to act. and selfiess service (FM 22-100: 2-8).
At both the mid-organizational and strategic leadership levels, the manual continues to illus- trate in a concrete way the leadership characteris- tics under consideration. To illustrate strategic decision making, the manual presents a half-page vignette in which Dwight Eisenhower analyzes particular aspects of his D-Day decision making.
alternatives. Both these approaches are consistent with the BKD model and may be more useful in specific organizational circumstances. In such cir- cum.stances. the BKD model can serve as a bench- mark for judging the various trade-offs the orga- nization must make.
Certainly, the BKD model cannot resolve al! issues associated with the LD process. Any single model is unlikely to address directly the many specific conceptual (e.g.. how does an organization best facilitate self reflection?) and practical (e.g.. how much shift in emphasis should occur between interpersonal and conceptual skills at different organizational levels?) issues that arise in the LD process. Nonetheless, the BKD model appears to provide an extremely valuable starting point.
38 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
Notes
Portions of this paper were presented at the Academy of Management National Conference in Seattle. Washington. August 2003. Thanks to Major David Pursley, Dr. Orly Nobel, and several anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of the manu- script. Direct inquiries to: Prof. Donald J. Campbell, Dept. of Behavioral Sciences & Leadership. United States Military Academy, West Point. NY 10996, E-mail: LD6829to*usma.edu. Dr. Dardis recently retired from active duty and is currently the Chief Learning Officer at Freddie Mac Corporation in McClean. Virginia.
Biographical Sketches Donald Campbell received his doctorate from Purdue University and is currently Professor of Management and Leadership in the Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership at the United States Military Academy. He has previ- ously been on the faculties of the National University of Singapore. Bowling Green State University, the University of Iowa, and Duke University. His re.search has appeared in many of the major scholarly journals, including the Academy of Management Executive, Academy of Management Review, the Journal of Applied Psychology and Personnel Psychology.
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Greg Dardis. a graduate of West Point, earned his Ph.D. in psychology fnmi the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Before his recent retirement from active duty in the U.S. Army, he sen'ed as Program Director for the Leadership and Management Studies program within the Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership at the U. S. Military Academy. Currently, Dr. Dardis hold the position of Chief Learning Officer at Freddie Mac Corporation.
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