essay
Medical or Health Care Division
One of the most complicated and expensive functions within a prison is health care. As a result, this division develops policy, performs quality assurance, and looks for ways to make health care more efficient for inmates and less expensive for the prison. One of the best outcomes for a corrections health care program involved HIV/AIDS. A widespread epidemic of HIV/AIDS cases was initially feared in prisons (through homosexual acts and prior drug use) but such an outbreak never happened. Today, the problem persists, with about 20,100 prison inmates having HIV or AIDS, but the overall number has declined about 3 percent per year, from 194 cases per 10,000 inmates in 2001 to 146 per 10,000 at present. 31
Human Resource Management Division
The usual personnel functions of recruitment, hiring, training, evaluation, and retirement are accomplished in the human resource management division. Affirmative action and labor relations (discussed in Chapter 14 ) may also be included. Workplace diversity is important for corrections agencies, particularly with the growing number of African American and Hispanic inmates. Most states have a unionized workforce, and negotiating and managing labor issues are time-consuming; therefore, this division has staff with expertise in labor relations.
It’s important to note that states differ in terms of the organization of their central offices. In one Midwestern state, for example, its budget and operations administration are housed together within the central office. In addition, many states’ central offices also have research and planning units, training units, probation and parole services, prison industries division, and emergency response teams.
Figure 10-1 shows an example of the organizational structure of a central office in a state of 3 million people.
Figure 10-1 Example of an Organizational Structure for a Correctional Central Office
Figure 10-1 Full Alternative Text
Individual Prisons
Over time, prison organizational structure (see Figure 10-2 ) has changed considerably to respond to external needs. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, prisons were administered by state boards of charities, boards comprised of citizens, boards of inspectors, state prison commissions, or individual prison keepers. Most prisons were individual provinces; wardens who were given absolute control over their domain were appointed by governors through a system of political patronage. Individuals were attracted to the position of warden because it carried many fringe benefits, such as a lavish residence, unlimited inmate servants, food and supplies from institutional farms and warehouses, furnishings, and a personal automobile. Now most wardens or superintendents are civil service employees who have earned their position through seniority and merit. 32
Figure 10-2 Example of an Organizational Structure for a Maximum-Security Prison
Figure 10-2 Full Alternative Text
Attached to the warden’s office are (possibly by some other title) an institutional services inspector and the institutional investigator who deal with inmate complaints against staff. As mentioned in the earlier section on central office, prisons also need personnel who deal with labor contracts and the media, and who collect and provide this information to the central office. A computer services manager maintains the management information systems.
Also reporting to the warden are deputy or associate wardens, each of whom supervises a department within the prison. The deputy warden for operations will normally oversee correctional security, unit management, the inmate disciplinary committee, and recreation. This is typically the largest unit in terms of number of employees, as approximately 66 percent of all correctional employees are in the role of correctional officer, line staff, or supervisors in direct contact with inmates. 33 The deputy warden for special services will typically be responsible for functions that are more treatment oriented, including the library, mental health services, drug and alcohol recovery services, education, prison job assignments, religious services, and prison industries. Note that a large percentage of federal and state correctional facilities provide inmate work programs (88%), educational programs (85%), and counseling programs (92%). 34 Finally, the deputy warden for administration will manage the business office, prison maintenance, laundry, food service, medical services, prison farms, and the issuance of clothing. 35
It is important to note that custody and treatment are not either-or in correctional organizations; rather, they are complementary. Although custody overshadows treatment in terms of operational priorities—treatment programs are unable to flourish if security is weak and staff and inmates work and live in chronic fear and danger—prisons without programming options for offenders are nothing more than warehouses, being amenable to violence, disruption, and the continuation of criminally deviant behavior. Correctional staff, regardless of their job function, does not support such volatile conditions. Most often, the overriding concern in a prison or jail is and should be security. Security must be maintained so that programs can be implemented. Programs are generally supported by staff, especially those that address inmate deficiencies such as lack of education and job skills as well as substance abuse. Keep in mind that according to a recent report, only a low percentage of offenders actually receive treatment: just 11 percent of all jail and prison inmates receive the proper level of treatment prescribed by the judiciary. 36 Prison administrators must decide which programs they will allow to be introduced into their facility; this is not often an easy task, especially when much of the public perceives that programs only “coddle” inmates. 37
Next, we discuss several related aspects—correctional security, unit management, education, and penal industries—in more detail.
· The correctional security department supervises all of the security activities within a prison, including any special housing units, inmate transportation, and the inmate disciplinary process. Security staff wear military-style uniforms, a captain normally runs each 8-hour shift, lieutenants often are responsible for an area of the prison, and sergeants oversee the rank-and-file correctional staff. Missteps by this department, in particular, can have dire consequences for officer and prisoner safety and institutional integrity, such as recently when a group of inmates at a Delaware maximum-security prison took several officers hostage and engaged in a standoff with police that lasted several hours. 38
· The unit management concept originated in the federal prison system in the 1970s and now is used in nearly every state to control prisons by providing a “small, self-contained, inmate living and staff office area that operates semiautonomously within the larger institution.” 39 The purpose of unit management is twofold: to decentralize the administration of the prison and to enhance communication among staff and between staff and inmates. Unit management breaks the prison into more manageable sections based on housing assignments; assignment of staff to a particular unit; and staff authority to make decisions, manage the unit, and deal directly with inmates. Units are usually comprised of 200 to 300 inmates; staff are not only assigned to units, but their offices are also located in the housing area, making them more accessible to inmates and better able to monitor inmate activities and behavior. Directly reporting to the unit manager are case managers, or social workers, who develop the program of work and rehabilitation for each inmate and write progress reports for parole authorities, inmate classifications (discussed in Chapter 12 ), or inmate transfers to another prison. Correctional counselors also work with inmates in the units on daily issues, such as finding a prison job, working with their prison finances, and creating a visiting and telephone list. 40
· The education department operates the academic teaching, vocational training, library services, and sometimes recreation programs for inmates. An education department is managed similarly to a conventional elementary or high school, with certified teachers for all subjects that are required by the state department of education or are part of the General Education Degree (GED) test. In federal and state prisons, 90 percent of facilities offer formal educational programs, the most common of which is a secondary education or a GED program. 41 Vocational training can include carpentry, landscaping or horticulture, food service, and office skills.
Prison industries also exist—programs intended to provide productive work and skill development opportunities for offenders, to reduce recidivism and prepare offenders for reentry into society. 42 They are typically legislatively chartered as separate government corporations and report directly to the warden because there is often a requirement that the industry be self-supporting or operate from funds generated from the sale of products. Generally, no tax dollars are used to run the programs, and there is strict accountability of funds.
Correctional administrators report that joint ventures provide meaningful, productive employment that helps to reduce inmate idleness and supplies companies with a readily available and dependable source of labor, as well as the partial return to society of inmate earnings to pay state and federal taxes, offset incarceration costs, contribute to the support of inmates’ families, and compensate victims.
Several different types of business relationships exist—the personnel model, the employer model, and the customer model. In the personnel model, prisoners are employed by the state division of correctional industries, which in turn charges the companies a fixed rate for their labor. In the employer model, the company employs the inmates, and private companies own and operate their prison-based businesses, with prison officials providing the space in which the companies operate as well as a qualified labor pool from which the companies hire employees. In the customer model, the company contracts with the prison to provide a finished product at an agreed-on price. The correctional institution owns and operates the business that employs the inmates. These joint ventures provide challenges and problems: absenteeism and rapid turnover of employees, limited opportunities for training, and logistical concerns. Still, many inmates who participate in these programs show up for their jobs on time, work hard during their shifts, and have been hired by companies after their release. 43 A typical prison industry organizational structure is presented in Figure 10-3 .
Figure 10-3 Organizational Structure for a Prison Industry
Jails as Organizations
Across the United States, approximately 3,280 jails are administered, 106 which together have an average daily population of approximately 721,000 inmates. This number, however, does not represent the total number of inmates admitted into jails in a given year at 10.9 million. 107 The organization and hierarchical levels of jails are determined by several factors: size, budget, level of crowding, local views on punishment and treatment, and even the levels of training and education of the jail administrator. An organizational structure for a jail serving a population of about 250,000 is suggested in Figure 10-4 .
Figure 10-4 Organizational Structure of a Jail Serving a Population of 250,000
Figure 10-4 Full Alternative Text
The administration of jails is frequently one of the major tasks of county sheriffs. Several writers have concluded that sheriffs and police personnel see themselves primarily as law enforcers first and view the responsibility of organizing and operating a jail as an unwelcome task. 108 Therefore, their approach is often said to be at odds with advanced corrections philosophy and trends.
Podular/Direct Supervision Jails
Rationale and Expanding Use
As noted previously, in the past, the federal courts have at times become more willing to hear inmate allegations of constitutional violations ranging from inadequate heating, lighting, and ventilation to the censorship of mail. One of every five cases filed in federal courts was on behalf of prisoners, 109 and 20 percent of all jails were a party in a pending lawsuit. 110
Court-ordered pressures to improve jail conditions afforded an opportunity for administrators to explore new ideas and designs; therefore, over the past several decades and in response to the deluge of lawsuits concerning jail conditions, many local jurisdictions constructed what is now known as the podular direct supervision (PDS) jail , where inmates’ cells are arranged around a common area—in podular fashion, with no physical barriers between the officer and the inmates, having an open dayroom area—and inmate management style is direct in nature, with officers moving about the pod and interacting with the inmates to manage their behavior. PDS jails also typically offer more amenities in the living areas, including visiting areas, books, and telephones. 111 The PDS jail (formerly known as “new-generation” jail) represents a comparatively new approach for addressing many of the earlier problems found in local jails. 112
According to the National Institute of Corrections (NIC), the number of PDS jails increased in the United States from approximately 199 in 1995 to about 350 at present. Today, approximately one-fifth of medium- to large-sized jails use the podular architecture. 113 This growing number, the NIC stated, “suggests that direct supervision continues to be adopted as a design style and management philosophy in large and small jurisdictions across the United States.” 114
Departing from Tradition
PDS jails differ from traditional jails in several ways. First, the physical environment is different (See Figure 10-5 ). In traditional jails, cells are arranged linearly along a corridor, with officers being separated from inmates by bars, glass, or other physical barriers. Officers must patrol halls where their line of sight into each cell is severely restricted, and officers can observe what is happening inside a cell only when they are almost directly in front of it. In the PDS jail, inmates are separated into relatively small groups (usually 50 or fewer), housed in self-contained living units including several one- to two-person cells, a day room, and recreation space. These units, or “pods,” usually are triangular or wedge shaped so that jail officers have a direct line of sight into all areas of the pod at all times. The furnishings in the living units also differ and generally include carpeting, porcelain lavatories, moveable furniture that may be padded or plastic, and other “soft” fixtures. The direct supervision philosophy has officers stationed within the living area with no physical barriers to separate them from inmates. In these units, officers maintain a constant physical presence, but they also interact extensively with inmates. 115
Probation Systems
Types of Systems
Figure 10-6 depicts an organizational structure for a regional probation and parole organization. Probation —where a court places a person on supervision in the community, generally in lieu of incarceration—is the most frequently used sanction; it costs offenders their privacy and self-determination and usually includes some element of the other sanctions: jail time, fines, restitution, or community service. 141 Probation in the United States is administered by more than 2,000 different agencies. Its organization is a patchwork that defies simple explanation. In about three-fourths of the states, adult probation is part of the executive branch of state government. 142 By contrast, more than half of the agencies providing juvenile probation services are administered in juvenile courts on the local level. 143
Figure 10-6 Organizational Structure for a Regional Probation and Parole Organization
Figure 10-6 Full Alternative Text
According to Howard Abadinsky, the administration of probation systems can be separated into six categories: 144
1. Juvenile. Separate probation services for juveniles are administered on a county, municipal, or state level.
2. Municipal. Independent probation units are administered by the lower courts under state laws and guidelines.
3. County. Under laws and guidelines established by the state, a county operates its own probation agency.
4. State. One agency administers a central probation system, which provides services throughout the state.
5. State combined. Probation and parole services are administered on a statewide basis by one agency.
6. Federal. Probation is administered as an arm of the federal courts.
This patchwork nature of probation systems has raised two central organizational questions concerning the administration of probation services: Should probation be part of the judicial or the executive branch of government? Does the lack of uniformity in administering probation make justice less equitable statewide? 145 These important and lingering issues were first considered nearly 50 years ago by the President’s Commission. 146
Although it was shown previously that few probation/parole agencies are organized and governed at the county level, Abadinsky argued that probation administered by the judiciary on a county level promotes diversity:
Innovative programming can be implemented more easily in a county agency because it has a shorter line of bureaucratic control than would a statewide agency. A county agency can more easily adapt to change, and the successful programs of one agency can more easily be adopted by other probation departments and unsuccessful programs avoided. Although the judiciary is nominally responsible for administering probation, the day-to-day operations are in the hands of a professional administrator—the chief probation officer. 147
Systems Theory
As with the administration of police, court, or prison organizations, the probation department administrator’s goals may affect the services provided to the client, which in turn may have an impact on the client’s request for services. This systematic interaction between an organization’s resources and structure and the community has been referred to as its “sociotechnical environment,” 148 meaning that the principles of the system are organized to execute the basic production technologies of the organization.
Each probation administrator needs to recognize that the organization is a system of inputs, processes, and outputs (discussed in Chapter 2 ). For probation, inputs are clients coming into the office for counseling and supervision (the processes); outputs are the probationer’s obtaining employment, acquiring a skill, observing a curfew, and so on. This understanding of probation, using systems theory, provides a means of learning how probation departments function and interact with their environment and of examining the resources, activities, and outcomes in a way that can identify the goals, describe the day-to-day activities, and link the department’s activities to resources and outcomes.
According to systems theory, probation may be conceptualized as a network of interwoven resources, activities, and outcomes. 149 According to Hardyman, resources include the probation department’s funding level, goals, policies and procedures, organizational structure, and caseload; the probation staff’s characteristics; the services available to probationers; and the rates of unemployment, poverty, and crime in the county. Activities are supervision techniques, rewards, leadership style, contacts, and direct and indirect services provided by the probation department. Outcomes, according to systems theory, are the number of probationers who were arrested, incarcerated, and/or cited for a technical violation during the follow-up period, as well as the needs of probationers that were considered. 150 See Exhibit 10.5 for a description of Hawaii’s Project HOPE.
Justice Administration, 9th Edition
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Author: |
Ken J. Peak; Andrew L. Giacomazzi |