Nichowilliam

This text comes from the textbook

Citation for textbook: Capuzzi, M.D.S. D. (2016). Human Growth and Development Across the Lifespan: Applications for Counselors. [VitalSource Bookshelf]. Retrieved from https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781118984758/

Discussion 1:

Nature Versus Nurture

Another dynamic theme in developmental science is nature versus nurture, also expressed as genetics versus environment. It can be challenging to determine what is genetic and what is environmental since children receive 50% of their genes from parents but also are embedded in the environment strongly mediated by the family. The word embedded is often used because it more adequately describes the interdependence of a person with the environment. This is similar to Heidegger’s (1962) descriptions of people as being in the world, a mutuality where the individual being is continually making, changing, and influencing the world and conversely the environment is making, changing, and influencing the individual. The environmental–genetic interaction is hard to pull apart because the two things are not separate. For example, in addictions treatment, primary and secondary are tightly connected. As another example, connection between parent behavior and child behavior (i.e., anxious parent and anxious child) may just as readily reflect a “genetic transmission as well as or instead of an environmental affect” (McAdams et al., 2014, p. 1139). Counselors should cautiously examine assumptions when making causal attributions for a client issue on either the nature or nurture side. Are Martha’s eating disorder and her academic giftedness due to heredity or the environment? How much is Harry’s heart attack due to “bad” genes or “bad” health behaviors? Counselors examine the evidence-based material and realize that problems have biopsychosocial origins and solutions. Whole sections on fitness, psychology, and nutrition attest to the consumer’s intrinsic motivation to develop in some way. Consider that many people never learn to read, swim, play the piano, sing in tune, cook, and accurately draw without books or instruction on reading, swimming, music, voice, cooking, and drawing. Our heredity comes with capacities for wonderful skills, but they must be nurtured by the environment.

Discussion 4:

Conduct Disorder

CD is characterized by pervasive behavior that violates the rights of others or major societal norms (APA, 2013). To diagnose CD three symptoms must be present within the past 12 months with one recurring symptom in the past 6 months (APA, 2013): (1) aggression to people and animals; (2) destruction of property; (3) deceitfulness or theft; and (4) serious violation of rules (APA, 2013). (Note: For a more detailed explanation please consult your DSM-V.)

Discussion 5:

Erikson, Marcia, and Identity Development

As has been discussed in previous chapters, Erik Erikson proposed a stage-based developmental theory that identified specific challenges or crises that need to be resolved in the process of healthy development. The adolescent years coincide with Erikson’s fifth stage of development, for which the primary task is the search for identity. According to Erikson, adolescents are driven to figure out who they are and where they are going that is, they have an inherent need to internalize their self-value and find their place in the world. During a relatively short period of human growth, adolescents transition from childhood to adulthood; along with this transition comes a multitude of changes in physical, emotional, and psychological processes. Erikson (1968) described the challenge of this growth period as identity versus role confusion. Positive resolution of this developmental stage means an adolescent can transition to adulthood with a clear sense of fidelity a foundational component in healthy relationships in all areas of life. The cohesive sense of self that emerges from this stage means the adolescent now moving into adulthood develops an ability to appreciate differences in others and within himself or herself. There is a clarity of one’s own identity, direction, and purpose, which in turn supports transition to the next developmental stage, for which the primary challenge is intimacy. Negative resolution of this developmental stage can lead to role confusion a state in which the individual is unsure about his or her place in society. Failure to effectively internalize identity and develop a firm sense of self can affect not only the young person’s immediate developmental processes but also intimate relationships in the short and long term. To navigate this important developmental stage, adolescents often explore aspects of self and others in ways they previously did not. Some of these behaviors may be misconstrued or dismissed as simply adolescent rebellion, when in fact they are important steps in personal development. For example, what may superficially appear as a rejection of parental or cultural values previously embraced may in fact be an important step to internalizing these very same beliefs. That is, before adolescents can commit to a set of principles and behaviors, they want to be sure these are what they want what works for them and fits for them. This process of internalization of identity is an important aspect in empowering individual development and supporting the cohesive identity during adolescence. During the exploration process, adolescents may try on different identities before finding one that fits well for them. There may be many starts and stops along the way, and perhaps even the appearance of regression as an adolescent read- opts previous identity-based behaviors following rejection of a recent exploration. However, to assume such a pathway is regression would be incorrect. In fact, it has been suggested that this is, in fact, an important aspect of identity development. James Marcia (1966, 1980) suggested that the process of identity development can be subdivided into four statuses: diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement. These statuses differ from stages with respect to their existence on a continuum, with each defined by the relative levels of exploration and commitment to identity the depth and complexity of these increases with each status. Diffusion is marked by low exploration and low commitment. Adolescents in this stage have not evaluated their opportunities or direction. The diffusion status is far more common in younger adolescents as they transition from the structured, concrete world of childhood. However, it may also be present in older adolescents who have yet to identify an occupational path or life goals. Foreclosure is marked by some level of commitment but a lack of exploration. Adolescents in this stage have accepted the likelihood of certain roles and values, but they have not yet explored options beyond those externally imposed by parents and other caregiving adults in their lives. They have not yet experienced identity crisis, during which they will challenge preconceived notions and increase exploration. By contrast, moratorium is marked by low commitment and high exploration and is the time most often associated with the identity crisis of adolescence. During this time, options and alternatives are more actively explored, with little or no commitment to a single pathway. The last status—achievement—is the resolution to the crisis; it is when the adolescent has explored options and has made a commitment to the identity he or she has chosen. Figure 11.3 summarizes Marcia’s four identity statuses of adolescence. Although the overall progress does tend to move forward, adolescents may also find themselves in different statuses simultaneously as they pertain to different characteristics of self. In addition, life experiences often precipitate movement across the statuses that may or may not be in a forward direction. For example, traumatic experiences may precipitate a period of reevaluation, or perhaps even loss of options, which may cause the adolescent to disengage from commitment—effectively setting back identity development. Last, not all statuses are observed in every individual’s development but rather should be seen as a way to better understand the complex processes and steps affecting the evolution of a cohesive identity. Progression through identity exploration and development—whether viewed from the broad scope of Erikson’s theory or from the more specific approach of Marcia—is supported or hindered by environmental influences. Parental and social reactions to adolescent exploration can have a significant impact on the manner in which the aspects of self are perceived, retained, and potentially incorporated. For example, in Western cultures—where individuality and personal choice are highly valued—an adolescent may move through exploratory aspects of identity and achieve a functional level of commitment with relatively less stress and conflict when his or her journey is supported and encouraged. Conversely, an adolescent whose primary cultural affiliation is collectivist in nature may experience greater difficulty progressing through exploration and commitment if he or she gravitates toward a more individualistic identity. A counselor must take into consideration both the external and internal influences on identity development during this pivotal time. Last, it is important to remember that identity achievement is a beginning, not an end; it provides a foundation for the transition to young adulthood, during which the internalized self is further examined and evaluated, and identity is tweaked in a conscious, deliberate manner. In essence, adolescent identity development provides the basis for continued healthy developmental processes.

Low exploration

Diffussion Foreclosure

Low Commitment High Commitment

Moratorium Achievement

High exploration

Figure 11.3 Marcia’s four identity statuses of adolescence.