Assignment 9

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Module 25 Using Visuals 417

In your rough draft, use visuals

• To see that ideas are presented completely. A table, for example, can show you whether you’ve included all the items in a comparison.

• To find relationships. For example, charting sales on a map may show that all the sales representatives who made quota have territories on the East or the West Coasts. Is the central United States suffering a recession? Is the product one that appeals to coastal lifestyles? Is advertising reaching the coasts but not the central states? Even if you don’t use the visual in your final document, creating the map may lead you to questions you wouldn’t otherwise ask.

In the final presentation or document, use visuals

• To make points vivid. Readers skim memos and reports; a visual catches the eye. The brain processes visuals immediately. Understanding words—written or oral—takes more time.

• To emphasize material that might be skipped if it were buried in a paragraph. • To present material more compactly and with less repetition than words alone

would require. • To focus on information that decision makers need.

The number of visuals you need depends on your purposes, the kind of information, and the audience. You’ll use more visuals when you want to show relationships and to persuade, when the information is complex or contains extensive numerical data, and when the audience values visuals.

Your chart is only as good as the underlying data. Check to be sure that your data come from a reliable source (◀◀ Module 22).

Use visuals only for points you want to emphasize

We’re using visual abilities in innovative ways. A technology being developed by Dr. Jean Lorenceau of the Université Pierre et Marie Curie in Paris makes it possible for people to write using eye movements, which are then translated into cursive letters on a computer screen. While the technology can have widespread applications, it may prove especially beneficial for individuals who have been injured or are challenged by degenerative diseases, such as ALS.

Source: Bruce Geryk, “New Technology Lets People Write Just with Their Eyes,” ABC News, July 26, 2012, http://news.yahoo.com/ technology-lets-people-write-just- eyes-151217619—abc-news- wellness.html .

Increasingly, businesses are turning to more visual ways for employees to work out their ideas and explain them to peers. Visual note taking includes doodling and sketching to help spur creativity, using anything from paper and whiteboards to writable glass and sophisticated computer setups. Regardless of the technology used, “the hand is the easiest way to get something down,” says Facebook communication designer Everett Katigbak.

Source: Rachel Emma Silverman, “Doodling for Dollars: Firms Try to Get Gadget-Obsessed Workers to Look Up—and Sketch Ideas,” The Wall Street Journal, April 24, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100 014240527023039781045773624 02264009714.html?KEYWORDS 5 powerpoint 1 presentation .

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418 Unit Six Research, Reports, and Visuals

What are stories, and how do I find them? LO 25-1 ▶ A story is something that is happening, according to the data.

▶ To find stories, look for relationships and changes.

Every visual should tell a story. Stories can be expressed in complete sentences that describe something that happens or changes. The sentence can also serve as the title of the visual.

Not a story: U.S. Sales, 1999–2011 Possible stories: Forty Percent of Our Sales Were to New Customers.

Growth Was Greatest in the South. Sales Increased from 1999 to 2011.

Stories that tell us what we already know are rarely interesting. Instead, good stories may

• Support a hunch you have. • Surprise you or challenge so-called “common knowledge.” • Show trends or changes you didn’t know existed. • Have commercial or social significance. • Provide information needed for action. • Be personally relevant to you and the audience.

To find stories,

1. Focus on a topic (starting salaries, who likes rock music, and so forth). 2. Simplify the data on that topic and convert the numbers to simple, easy-to-understand units. 3. Look for relationships and changes. For example, compare two or more groups: Do

men and women have the same attitudes? Look for changes over time. Look for items that can be seen as part of the same group. For example, to find stories about TV ads, you might group ads in the same product category—ads for cars, for food, for beverages.

When you think you have a story, test it against all the data to be sure it’s accurate. Some stories are simple straight lines: “Sales Increased.” But other stories are more com-

plex, with exceptions or outlying cases. Such stories will need more nuanced titles to do jus- tice to the story. And sometimes the best story arises from the juxtaposition of two or more stories. In Figure 25.1 , the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics used two paired graphs to tell a story. Individually, the graphs tell simple stories. Together, however, they tell an interesting story. Automotive workers earned more than nonautomotive workers, despite the recent trends of steady or declining compensation costs.

Gene Zelazny points out that the audience should be able to see what the message says:

Does the chart support the title; and does the title reinforce the chart? So if I say in my title that “sales have increased significantly” I want to see a trend moving up at a sharp angle. If not, if the trend parallels the baseline, it’s an instant clue that the chart needs more thinking. 1

Almost every data set allows you to tell several stories. You must choose the story you want to tell. Dumps of uninterpreted data confuse and frustrate your audience; they under- cut the credibility and goodwill you want to create.

Does it matter what kind of visual I use? LO 25-2 ▶ Yes! The visual must match the kind of story.

Visuals are not interchangeable. Choose the visual that best matches the purpose of presenting the data.

• Use tables when the reader needs to be able to identify exact values. (See Figure 25.2a .) • Use a chart or graph when you want the reader to focus on relationships. 2 • To compare a part to the whole, use a pie chart. (See Figure 25.2b .) • To compare one item to another item, or items over time, use a bar chart or a line

graph. (See Figures 25.2c and 25.2d .)

When former Washington Governor Gary Locke stopped to get his own coffee at a Seattle airport, he had no idea he would become a media sensation. The photo, taken by businessman ZhaoHui Tang, was posted to the Chinese social media network Sina Weibo, where it was viewed and reposted thousands of times. “This is something unbelievable in China,” Tang said.” Even for low-ranking officials, we don’t do things for ourselves. Someone goes to buy the coffee for them. Someone carries their bags for them.” Locke, the first Chinese- American ambassador to China, was also wearing a backpack. The story told by the photo helped to fuel his enormous celebrity in the most-populated country in the world.

Source: “Photo of Bag-Carrying Ambassador Charms China,” August 16, 2011, http:// news.yahoo.com/photo-bag- carrying-ambassador-charms- china-184349082.html ; and Keith Richburg, “Gary Locke Is star in China as first U.S. Ambassador of Chinese Ancestry,” The Washington Post, November 30, 2011, http:// www.washingtonpost.com/ lifestyle/style/gary-locke-is-star- in-china-as-first-us-ambassador- of-chinese-ancestry/2011/11/28/ gIQA703DEO_story.html .

Site to See

Go to www.quintura.com Quintura is a search engine that returns results in more visual form, rather than just a list of links. The user enters a topic, and then Quintura builds a “cloud” of the results. Keywords in different colors and sizes represent the relevance of different topics. To see details, the user clicks on a word.

Go to

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Module 25 Using Visuals 419

What design conventions should I follow? LO 25-3 ▶ Check your visuals against the lists that follow.

Every visual should contain six components:

1. A title that tells the story that the visual shows. 2. A clear indication of what the data are. For example, what people say they did is not

necessarily what they really did. An estimate of what a number will be in the future differs from numbers in the past that have already been measured.

3. Clearly labeled units. 4. Labels or legends identifying axes, colors, symbols, and so forth.

Websites like Pinterest—where users post and link to visuals— are gaining traction, especially with women, so much so that many businesses are now “pinning.” Sevenly, a maker of custom T-shirts, and Cakestyle, which makes wardrobe suggestions for women, are among companies heavily promoting their efforts on Pinterest. Other image-based sites include Visually, which helps users create infographics, and Flickr, which allows users to post photos and sponsors a contest to tell a story visually— in five frames. Flickr has 7.2 billion uploaded photos.

Sources: John Brandon, “9 Tips: Boost Your Business with Pinterest,” Inc., December 20, 2011, http://www.inc.com/ john-brandon/9-tips-boost-your- business-pinterest.html ; and Donna Tam, “IPhone Stays No. 1 in Flickr Popularity,” June 27, 2012, http:// news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3- 57462099-93/iphone-stays-no-1- in-flickr-popularity/ .

Figure 25.2 Choose the Visual to Fit the Story

b. Pie charts compare a component to the whole.

d. Line charts compare items over time or show distribution or correlation.

Forty percent of our 2012 sales were to new customers.

Old customers

60%

New customers

40%

a. Tables show exact values.

U.S. sales reach $44.5 million.

Millions of dollars

2010 2011 2012

Northeast 10.2 10.8 11.3

South 7.6 8.5 10.4

Midwest 8.3 6.8 9.3

West 11.3 12.1 13.5

Totals 37.4 38.2 44.5

c. Bar charts compare items or show distribution or correlation.

Northeast

South

Midwest

West

% growth, 2008–2012

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 5035

thth

stst

0 5 10 15 20 25

11%

38%

12%

19%

Growth was greatest in the South.

02 04 06 08 10 12

Sales increased from 2002 to 2012.

S al

es ,

m ill

io ns

o f d

ol la

Figure 25.1 Paired Graphs Tell a Complex Story Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, April 2011.

Average hourly compensation costs, automotive workers and nonautomotive workers, private manufacturing industries, 2009

Total compensation Wages Benefits Health

$0.00

$10.00

$20.00

$30.00

$40.00 $36.98

$24.92 $22.19

$16.26 $14.79

$8.66

$4.76 $2.73

$50.00

H ou

rl y

co m

pe ns

at io

n co

st s

Automotive Nonautomotive

Auto, current dollars

Nonauto, current dollars

Auto, 1996 dollars

Nonauto, 1996 dollars

Average hourly compensation costs in current and 1996 dollars, auto workers and other blue-collar workers, private manufacturing industries, 1996–2009

$0.00

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

$10.00

$20.00

$30.00

$40.00

$50.00

A ve

ra ge

c om

pe ns

at io

n co

st s

pe r

w or

ke r

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420 Unit Six Research, Reports, and Visuals

Instant Replay

Tables and Figures

Tables are numbers or words arranged in rows and columns; figures are everything else. In a document, formal visuals have both numbers (Figure 1) and titles. In an oral presentation, the title is usually used without the number.

I R

Tables and F

5. The source of the data, if you created the visual from data someone else gathered and compiled.

6. The source of the visual, if you reproduce a visual someone else created.

Formal visuals are divided into tables and figures. Tables are numbers or words arranged in rows and columns; figures are everything else. In a document, formal visu- als have both numbers and titles—for example, “Figure 1. The Falling Cost of Computer Memory, 2008–2013.” In an oral presentation, the title is usually used without the number: “The Falling Cost of Computer Memory, 2008–2013.” The title should tell the story so that the audience knows what to look for in the visual and why it is important. Informal or spot visuals are inserted directly into the text; they do not have numbers or titles.

Tables

Use tables only when you want the audience to focus on specific numbers. Graphs convey less specific information but are always more memorable.

• Round off to simplify the data (e.g., 35% rather than 35.27%; 34,000 rather than 33,942). • Provide column and row totals or averages when they’re relevant. • Put the items you want readers to compare in columns rather than in rows to facilitate

mental subtraction and division. • When you have many rows, screen alternate entries or double-space after every five

entries to help readers line up items accurately.

Pie Charts

Pie charts force the audience to measure area. Research shows that people can judge position or length (which a bar chart uses) much more accurately than they judge area. The data in any pie chart can be put in a bar chart. 3 Therefore, use a pie chart only when you are comparing one segment to the whole. When you are comparing one segment to another segment, use a bar chart, a line graph, or a map—even though the data may be expressed in percentages.

• Start at 12 o’clock with the largest percentage or the percentage you want to focus on. Go clockwise to each smaller percentage or to each percentage in some other logical order.

• Make the chart a perfect circle. Perspective circles distort the data. • Limit the number of segments to five or seven. If your data have more divisions, combine

the smallest or the least important into a single “miscellaneous” or “other” category. • Label the segments outside the circle. Internal labels are hard to read.

Bar Charts

Bar charts are easy to interpret because they ask people to compare distance along a common scale, which most people judge accurately. Bar charts are useful in a variety of situations: to compare one item to another, to compare items over time, and to show cor- relations. Use horizontal bars when your labels are long; when the labels are short, either horizontal or vertical bars will work.

• Order the bars in a logical or chronological order. • Put the bars close enough together to make comparison easy. • Label both horizontal and vertical axes. • Put all labels inside the bars or outside them. When some labels are inside and some are

outside, the labels carry the visual weight of longer bars, distorting the data. • Make all the bars the same width. • Use different colors for different bars only when their meanings are different: estimates

as opposed to known numbers, negative as opposed to positive numbers. • Avoid using perspective. Perspective makes the values harder to read and can make

comparison difficult.

Several varieties of bar charts exist. See Figure 25.3 for examples.

Instant Replay

The Six Components of Every Visual

1. A title that tells the story that the visual shows.

2. A clear indication of what the data are.

3. Clearly labeled units. 4. Labels or legends

identifying axes, colors, symbols, and so forth.

5. The source of the data, if you created the visual from data someone else gathered and compiled.

6. The source of the visual, if you reproduce a visual someone else created.

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The Six Com

Instant Replay

How to Find Stories

1. Focus on a topic. 2. Simplify the data. 3. Look for relationships and

changes.

I R

How to Find

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Module 25 Using Visuals 421

• Grouped bar charts allow you to compare either several aspects of each item or several items over time. Group together the items you want to compare. Figure 25.3a shows sales were highest in the West. If we wanted to show how sales had changed over time in each region, the bars should be grouped by region, not by year.

• Segmented, subdivided, or stacked bars sum the components of an item. It’s hard to identify the values in specific segments; grouped bar charts are almost always easier to use.

• Deviation bar charts identify positive and negative values, or winners and losers. • Paired bar charts show the correlation between two items. • Histograms or pictograms use images to create the bars.

Line Graphs

Line graphs are also easy to interpret. Use line graphs to compare items over time, to show frequency or distribution, and to show correlations.

• Label both horizontal and vertical axes. • When time is a variable, put it on the horizontal axes. • Avoid using more than three different lines on one graph. Even three lines may be too

many if they cross each other. • Avoid using perspective. Perspective makes the values harder to read and can make

comparison difficult.

Can I use color and clip art? LO 25-4 ▶ Use color carefully.

▶ Avoid decorative clip art in memos and reports.

Color makes visuals more dramatic, but it creates at least two problems. First, readers try to interpret color, an interpretation that may not be appropriate. Second, meanings assigned to colors differ depending on the audience’s national background and profession.

Connotations for color vary from culture to culture (◀◀ p. 45). Blue suggests masculin- ity in the United States, criminality in France, strength or fertility in Egypt, and villainy in Japan. Red is sometimes used to suggest danger or stop in the United States; it means go in China and is associated with festivities. Red suggests masculinity or aristocracy in

Figure 25.3 Varieties of Bar Charts

2008 2010 2012

Northeast South Midwest West

30 20 10

0 –10 –20

New Jobs

Northeast

South

Midwest

West

= 10,000 new jobs

Television Cable DVDs

Cincinnati

San Francisco

Pittsburgh

Baseball Attendance

Football Attendance

Hours

a. Grouped bar charts compare several aspects of each item, or several items over time.

b. Segmented, subdivided, or stacked bars sum the components of an item.

d. Paired bar charts show the correlation between two items.

c. Deviation bar charts identify positive and negative values.

e. Histograms or pictograms use images to create the bars.

Many corporate logos have hidden images within their borders. For instance, there is an arrow in both the FedEx and Amazon logos, and a party scene in red and yellow can be found against black letters in the Tostitos logo. Some images even have hidden histories. One of the most famous images in the world—the recycling symbol—won University of Southern California graduate student Gary Anderson first place in a contest sponsored by the Container Corporation of America.

Sources: DivineCaroline, “Can You Spot the Hidden Images in These Famous Logos?” August 17, 2011, http://shine.yahoo.com/channel/life/ can-you-spot-the-hidden-images- in-these-famous-logos-2528093/ ; and Gary Anderson (as told to Katie Engelhart), “I Designed the Recycling Symbol,” Financial Times, May 12, 2012, http:// www.ft.com/cms/s/2/b242fb98- 996d-11e1-9a57-00144feabdc0. html?ftcamp 5 published_links% 2Frss%2Flife-arts_design%2Ffeed% 2F%2Fproduct#axzz1vFMlIj21 .

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422 Unit Six Research, Reports, and Visuals

France, death in Korea, blasphemy in some African countries, and luxury in many parts of the world. Yellow suggests caution or cowardice in the United States, prosperity in Egypt, grace in Japan, and femininity in many parts of the world. 4

These general cultural associations may be superseded by corporate, national, or profes- sional associations. Some people associate blue with IBM or Hewlett-Packard and red with Coca-Cola, communism, or Japan. People in specific professions learn other meanings for colors. Blue suggests reliability to financial managers, water or coldness to engineers, and death to health care professionals. Red means losing money to financial managers, danger to engineers, but healthy to health care professionals. Green usually means safe to engi- neers, but infected to health care professionals. 5

These various associations suggest that color is safest with a homogenous audience that you know well. In an increasingly multicultural workforce, color may send signals you do not intend. When you do use color in visuals, Thorell and Smith suggest these guidelines: 6

• Use no more than five colors when colors have meanings. • Use glossy paper to make colors more vivid. • Be aware that colors on a computer screen always look brighter than the same colors on

paper because the screen sends out light.

In any visual, use as little shading and as few lines as are necessary for clarity. Don’t clutter up the visual with extra marks. When you design black and white graphs, use shades of gray rather than stripes, wavy lines, and checks to indicate different segments or items.

In memos and reports, resist the temptation to make your visual “artistic” by turning it into a picture or adding clip art. Clip art is predrawn images that you can import into your newsletter, sign, or graph. A small drawing of a car in the corner of a line graph showing the number of miles driven is acceptable in an oral presentation or a newsletter, but out of place in a written report.

Edward Tufte uses the term chartjunk for decorations that at best are irrelevant to the visual and at worst mislead the reader. 7 Turning a line graph into a highway to show miles driven makes it harder to read: it’s hard to separate the data line from lines that are merely decorative. If you use clip art, be sure that the images of people show a good mix of both sexes, various races and ages, and various physical conditions (◀◀ p. 54).

What else do I need to check for? LO 25-5 ▶ Be sure that the visual is accurate and ethical.

Always double-check your visuals to be sure that the information is accurate. However, many visuals have accurate labels but misleading visual shapes. Visuals communicate quickly; audiences remember the shape, not the labels. If the reader has to study the labels to get the right picture, the visual is unethical even if the labels are accurate.

Figure 25.4 is distorted by chartjunk and dimensionality. In an effort to make the visual interesting, the artist used an image of a pushpin rather than simple bars. By using a pushpin rather than a bar, the chart makes it difficult to compare the numbers. The number represented by the tallest figure is not quite 34 times as great as the number represented by the shortest figure, yet the tallest figure takes up more than 34 times as much space and appears even bigger than that. Two-dimensional figures distort data by multiplying the apparent value by the width as well as by the height—four times for every doubling in value. Perspective graphs are especially hard for readers to interpret and should be avoided. 8

Even simple bar and line graphs may be misleading if part of the scale is missing, or truncated. Truncated graphs are most acceptable when the audience knows the basic data set well. For example, graphs of the stock market almost never start at zero; they are rou- tinely truncated. This omission is acceptable for audiences who follow the market closely.

Since part of the scale is missing in truncated graphs, small changes seem like major ones. Figure 25.5 shows three different truncated graphs of U.S. unemployment data.

MTV finally acknowledged what fans had noted for years: The network that pioneered showing music videos had all but stopped showing music videos. Thus, the colorful logo appears now without “Music Television” as part of its design, a better recognition of its programming.

Source: Scott Collins, “MTV Drops ‘Music Television’ from Official Logo,” The Los Angeles Times, February 13, 2010, http://articles.latimes. com/2010/feb/13/entertainment/ la-et-branding13-2010feb13 .

Taste may be relative, but sensitivity is key to producing inoffensive visuals. British Petroleum (BP), whose ruptured oil pipeline caused perhaps the worst human-made ecological disaster in Gulf of Mexico history, is no stranger to accidents. Nonetheless, in 2002, its risk management specialists compared in a cost-benefit analysis the safe housing of refinery employees to the “Three Little Pigs” nursery rhyme, complete with swine-adorned diagrams. The cheeky tone was noted by observers when the report surfaced during a lawsuit against BP for a 2005 Texas City refinery explosion. Most of the 15 workers killed there were in trailers, an option the 2002 report showed was 10 times cheaper than blast-resistant housing.

Sources: Brett Michael Dykes, “Old BP Document Calculates Worth of Human Life with ‘Three Little Pigs’ Diagram,” May 25, 2010, http://news.yahoo.com/s/ ynews/20100525/bs_ynews/ynews_ bs2240 ; and Outzen, Rick, “BP’s Shocking Memo,” The Daily Beast, downloaded on May 25, 2010, at http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs- and-stories/2010-05-25/shocking- bp-memo-and-the-oil-spill-in-the- gulf/full/ .

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Module 25 Using Visuals 423

Figure 25.4 Chartjunk and Dimensions Distort Data

Figure 25.5 Truncated Scales Distort Data Sources: Bureau of Labor Statistics.

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

Jan-02 Jan-03 Jan-04 Jan-05 Jan-06 Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09 Jan-10 Jan-11 Jan-12

Unemployment Rate

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

Jan-02 Jan-03 Jan-04 Jan-05 Jan-06 Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09 Jan-10 Jan-11 Jan-12

Unemployment Rate

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

Jan-80 Jan-83 Jan-86 Jan-89 Jan-92 Jan-95 Jan-98 Jan-01 Jan-04 Jan-07 Jan-11

Unemployment Rate

Source: Chafkin, Max. “Can Ben Silbermann Turn Pinterest Into The World’s Greatest Shopfront?” Fast Company, October 2012, http:// www.fastcodesign.com/1670681/ ben-silbermann-pinterest.

608,000

7,516,000

20,470,000

Pinterest’s Rapid Rise Monthly U.S. Unique Visitors

June 2011 Dec. 2011 June 2012

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The second graph shows the trend in unemployment from January 2002 to January 2012. The curve rises from below the first level of the graph to the sixth, resembling a 95% increase. But a closer look at the numbers shows the increase from 4.5% to 10%. The period chosen for the vertical axis is truncated. The truncated scale on the vertical axis again makes the changes appear larger. The third graph takes a longer view (back to 1980) and puts the percentages on a scale starting at zero. On this scale, the changes in the unemployment rate seem less dramatic, and the recent increase looks as if it could be part of a regular pattern. Starting with 1980, the graph shows that the latest unemployment rate is significantly lower than it was in January 1983.

An annual report disguised losses by using a negative base. 9 Because readers expect zero to be the base, they’re almost certain to misread the visual. Labels may make the visual literally “accurate,” but a visual is unethical if someone who looks at it quickly is likely to misinterpret it.

Data can also be distorted when the context is omitted. As Tufte suggests, a drop may be part of a regular cycle, a correction after an atypical increase, or a permanent drop to a new, lower plateau.

To make your visuals more accurate,

• Differentiate between actual and estimated or projected values. • When you must truncate a scale, do so clearly with a break in the bars or in the

background. • Avoid perspective and three-dimensional graphs. • Avoid combining graphs with different scales. • Use images of people carefully in histographs to avoid sexist, racist, or other exclusionary

visual statements.

Integrating Visuals into Your Text LO 25-6

Building a Critical Skill

Refer to every visual in your text. Normally give the table or figure number in the text but not the title. Put the visual as soon after your reference as space and page design permit. If the visual must go on another page, tell the reader where to find it:

As Figure 3 shows (p. 10), . . . (See Table 2 on page 3.)

Summarize the main point of a visual before you present the visual itself. Then when readers get to it, they’ll see it as confir- mation of your point.

Weak: Listed below are the results. Better: As Figure 4 shows, sales doubled in the last decade.

How much discussion a visual needs depends on the audi- ence, the complexity of the visual, and the importance of the point it makes. If the material is new to the audience, you’ll

need a fuller explanation than if similar material is presented to this audience every week or month. Help the reader find key data points in complex visuals. If the point is important, discuss its implications in some detail. In contrast, one sentence about a visual may be enough when the audience is already familiar with the topic and the data, when the visual is simple and well designed, and when the information in the visual is a minor part of your proof.

When you discuss visuals, spell out numbers that are used as the first word of a sentence. If spelling out the number or year is cumbersome, revise the sentence so it does not begin with a number.

Correct: Forty-five percent of the cost goes to pay wages and salaries.

Correct: In 2002, euro notes and coins entered circulation.

The proliferation of corporate logos—on hats, cups, shoes, T-shirts, and billboards— presents tricky situations in venues where licensing to specific companies limits what can be done. For the 2012 Olympics in London, organizers had to clarify what items might be banned from display. So, a single person wearing a Pepsi T-shirt when Coca Cola is an official sponsor might be allowed in while a group of people wearing the same T-shirt might be asked to leave, the latter being defined as “ambush marketing.”

Source: Jill Lawless, “Pepsi or Coke? Olympic Brand Rules Sow Confusion,” Bloomberg Businessweek, July 20, 2012, http://www.businessweek.com/ ap/2012-07-20/olympic-brand- restrictions-sow-confusion .

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Module 25 Using Visuals 425

Can I use the same visuals in my document and my presentation? LO 25-7 ▶ Only if the table or graph is simple.

For presentations, simplify paper visuals. To simplify a complex table, divide it into sev- eral visuals, cut out some of the information, round off the data even more, or present the material in a chart rather than a table.

Visuals for presentations should have titles but don’t need figure numbers. Do know where each visual is so that you can return to one if someone asks about it during the ques- tion period. Decorative clip art is acceptable in oral presentations as long as it does not obscure the story you’re telling with the visual.

Summary of Learning Objectives • Pick data to tell a story, to make a point. To find stories,

(LO 25-1) 1. Focus on a topic. 2. Simplify the data. 3. Look for relationships and changes. • Paired graphs juxtapose two or more simple stories to create a

more powerful story. (LO 25-1) • Use tables when the reader needs to be able to identify exact

values. (LO 25-2) • Use a chart or graph when you want the reader to focus on rela-

tionships. (LO 25-2) • To compare a part to the whole, use a pie chart. (LO 25-2) • To compare one item to another item, or items over time, use a

bar chart or a line graph. (LO 25-2) • The best visual depends on the kind of data and the point you

want to make with the data. (LO 25-2) • Every visual should contain six components: (LO 25-3) 1. A title that tells the story that the visual shows. 2. A clear indication of what the data are. For example, what

people say they did is not necessarily what they really did. An estimate of what a number will be in the future differs from numbers in the past that have already been measured.

3. Clearly labeled units. 4. Labels or legends identifying axes, colors, symbols, and

so forth.

5. The source of the data, if you created the visual from data someone else gathered and compiled.

6. The source of the visual, if you reproduce a visual someone else created.

• Color makes visuals more dramatic, but it creates at least two prob- lems. First, readers try to interpret color, an interpretation that may not be appropriate. Second, meanings assigned to colors differ depending on the audience’s national background and profession. Visuals must present data correctly. Chartjunk denotes decorations that are at best irrelevant and at worst mislead the reader. (LO 25-4)

• Truncated graphs omit part of the scale and visually mislead readers. Perspective graphs and graphs with negative bases mis- lead readers. (LO 25-5)

• Refer to every visual in your text. (LO 25-6) • Summarize the main point of a visual before you present the

visual itself. (LO 25-6) • Analyze your audience to decide how much discussion you

need. (LO 25-6) • When you discuss visuals, spell out numbers that fall at the

beginning of sentences. (LO 25-6) • For presentations, simplify paper visuals. (LO 25-7) • To simplify a complex table, divide it into several visuals, cut

out some of the information, round off the data even more, or present the material in a chart rather than a table. (LO 25-7)

• Visuals for presentations should have titles but don’t need fig- ure numbers. (LO 25-7)

Assignments for Module 25

25.1 How can you find stories in data? (LO 25-1)

25.2 What is the difference between a table and a figure? (LO 25-2)

25.3 What is chartjunk? (LO 25-4)

Questions for Comprehension

25.4 Why does each visual need to tell a story? (LO 25-1)

25.5 Why are charts more memorable than tables? (LO 25-1)

25.6 When is chartjunk most likely to be acceptable? Why? (LO 25-4)

25.7 When is a truncated scale most likely to be acceptable? (LO 25-5)

Questions for Critical Thinking

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426 Unit Six Research, Reports, and Visuals

25.8 Identifying Stories (LO 25-1)

Of the following, which are stories? 1. Computer Use 2. Computer Prices Fall 3. More Single Parents Buy Computers than Do Any Other

Group

4. Where Your Tax Dollars Go 5. Sixty Percent of Tax Dollars Pay Entitlements, Interest

Exercises and Problems

What visual(s) would make it easiest to see each of the fol- lowing stories?

1. Canada buys 20% of U.S. exports. 2. Undergraduate enrollment rises, but graduate enroll-

ment declines. 3. Open communication ranks number one in reasons to

take a job.

4. Companies with fewer than 200 employees created a larger percentage of new jobs than did companies with more than 5,000 employees.

5. Men are more likely than women to see their chances for advancement as good.

25.9 Matching Visuals with Stories (LO 25-1)

Evaluate each of the following visuals. • Is the visual’s message clear? • Is it the right visual for the story? • Is the visual designed appropriately? Is color, if any, used

appropriately?

• Is the visual free from chartjunk? • Does the visual distort data or mislead the reader in any

way?

25.10 Evaluating Visuals (LO 25-1 to LO 25-5)

Ethiopia 22% Chad

24%

Kenya 17%Libya

37%

Number of Lottery Participants

In-state participants

Out-of-state participants

State of residence unknown

Key

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Module 25 Using Visuals 427

17.95% or 7 hours

12.82% or 5 hours

10.26% or 4 hours

5.13% or 2 hours 7.69% or 3 hours

15.38% or 6 hours

30.77% or 12 hours

How My Time Will Be Used

Gathering info

Analyzing info

Preparing progress report

Organizing info

Writing draft

Revising, editing draft

Typing, editing report

4. NBA Player Salaries by Team

Bulls 15%

Pistons 12%

Clippers 17%

Lakers 12%

Celtics 14%

Knicks 10%

Heat 12%

Hawks 18%

5. Prostate Cancer Per 100,000 men

Colon Cancer Per 100,000 men

Lung Cancer Per 100,000 men

United States

Belgium

Denmark

Germany

Japan

Spain

144 79 51

122 67 52

118 72 57

127 74 54

152 82 48

147 72 55

Blue circles are the highest value in each column

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428 Unit Six Research, Reports, and Visuals

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

In m

ill io

2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007

Students Enrolled in After-School Programs

Grades 1–5 Grades 6–8 Grades 9–12

Alternative and Country Album Sales

3520122011201020092008

In m illions

Alternative Country

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Module 25 Using Visuals 429

25.11 Interpreting Data (LO 25-1 to LO 25-5)

As Your Instructor Directs,

a. Identify at least six stories in one or more of the follow- ing data sets.

b. Create visuals for three of the stories. c. Write a memo to your instructor explaining why you

chose these stories and why you chose these visuals to display them.

d. Write a memo to some group that might be interested in your findings, presenting your visuals as part of a short report. Possible groups include pet stores, career coun- selors, and financial advisers.

e. Brainstorm additional stories you could tell with additional data. Specify the kind of data you would need.

Celebrities, 2004

Power Rank Name Pay Rank Web Rank Press Rank TV Rank

1 Mel Gibson 1 3 6 5

2 Tiger Woods 4 8 2 12

3 Oprah Winfrey 1 44 19 8

4 Tom Cruise 12 6 24 16

5 Rolling Stones 11 25 9 21

6 J. K. Rowling 3 34 54 3

7 Michael Jordan 20 10 15 15

8 Bruce Springsteen 8 28 38 26

9 Steven Spielberg 6 32 42 36

10 Johnny Depp 35 27 28 23

11 David Letterman 17 55 22 9

12 Peter Jackson 20 18 23 28

13 Angelina Jolie 44 5 40 29

14 Cameron Diaz 26 11 47 44

15 Jim Carrey 7 42 46 35

16 Michael Schumacher 4 19 30 92

17 Jennifer Aniston 50 23 43 38

18 Kobe Bryant 47 15 4 2

19 Beyonce Knowles 57 4 10 11

20 Rush Limbaugh 29 49 29 4

21 The Eagles 15 53 12 59

22 David Beckham 35 24 3 41

23 Howard Stern 28 26 62 10

24 Julia Roberts 51 2 37 36

25 Peyton Manning 16 75 27 62

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Module 25 Using Visuals 433

(For information on confidentiality protection, nonsampling error, and definitions, see www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/doc/sf1.pdf)

Detailed group

Asian alone Asian in combination with one or

more other races Asian detailed group alone

or in any combination2

One Asian group

reported1

Two or more Asian groups

reported2

One Asian group

reported

Two or more Asian groups

reported2

Total ..................... 10,019,405 223,593 1,516,841 138,989 11,898,828

Asian Indian ............. 1,678,765 40,013 165,437 15,384 1,899,599

Bangladeshi ............. 41,280 5,625 9,655 852 57,412

Bhutanese ................ 183 9 17 3 212

Burmese ................... 13,159 1,461 1,837 263 16,720

Cambodian .............. 171,937 11,832 20,830 1,453 206,052

(continued)

Percent of consumers who, in the past year, have Overall

By Age

Sig.a18–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65 and

over

Received a telemarketing call

85.8% 74.8% 87.3% 89.9% 89.5% 87.5% 79.6% ***

Purchased something in response to a telemarketing call from a company with whom you have not previously done business

3.7% 1.8% 6.4% 4.9% 3.8% 3.2% 1.4% ***

Contributed to a charity to which you have not previously donated in response to a telemarketing call

7.9% 7.5% 12.3% 10.2% 5.7% 7.9% 4.7% ***

Placed an order for a product by telephone, Internet, or mail after receiving an unsolicited piece of mail from a company with whom you have not previously done business

9.1% 7.5% 13.4% 9.3% 9.4% 8.3% 6.5% **

Placed an order for a product by telephone, Internet, or mail after seeing a television advertisement or infomercial

22.3% 21.4% 25.3% 24.7% 24.4% 19.7% 17.7% *

Purchased something from an Internet website

37.9% 38.4% 52.0% 50.5% 43.5% 28.3% 14.5% ***

Consumer Responses to Solicitations

From “Consumer Fraud in the United States: An FTC Survey, http://www.ftc.gov/reports/consumerfraud/040805confraudrpt.pdf.table2 Note. a Indicates joint statistical significance of differences across age groups. ***significant at 1 percent level **significant at 5 percent level *significant at 10 percent level

Asian Population by Detailed Group: 2000

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434 Unit Six Research, Reports, and Visuals

From “The Asian Population: 2000,” http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-16.pdf . -Represents zero. 1 The total of 10,019,405 respondents categorized as reporting only one Asian group in this table is lower than the total of 10,019,410 shown in Table PCT5 (U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 1 100-Percent Data, see factfinder.census.gov ). This table includes more detailed groups than PCT5. This means that, for example, an individual who reported “Pakistani and Nepalese” is shown in this table as reporting two or more Asian groups. However, that same individual is categorized as reporting a single Asian group in PCT5 because both Pakistani and Nepalese are part of the larger Other specified Asian group. 2 The numbers by detailed Asian group do not add to the total population. This is because the detailed Asian groups are tallies of the number of Asian responses rather than the number of Asian respondents. Respondents reporting several Asian groups are counted several times. For example, a respondent reporting “Korean and Filipino” would be included in the Korean as well as the Filipino numbers. 3 Includes respondents who checked the “Other Asian” response category on the census questionnaire or wrote in a generic term such as “Asian” or “Asiatic.”

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000, special tabulations.

Detailed group

Asian alone Asian in combination with one or

more other races Asian detailed group alone

or in any combination2

One Asian group

reported1

Two or more Asian groups

reported2

One Asian group

reported

Two or more Asian groups

reported2

Chinese, except Taiwanese ............ 2,314,537 130,826 201,688 87,790 2,734,841

Filipino ...................... 1,850,314 57,811 385,236 71,454 2,364,815

Hmong ..................... 169,428 5,284 11,153 445 186,310

Indo Chinese ........... 113 55 23 8 199

Indonesian ............... 39,757 4,429 17,256 1,631 63,073

Iwo Jiman ................. 15 3 60 - 78

Japanese ................. 796,700 55,537 241,209 55,486 1,148,932

Korean ...................... 1,076,872 22,550 114,211 14,794 1,228,427

Laotian ...................... 168,707 10,396 17,914 1,186 198,203

Malaysian ................. 10,690 4,339 2,837 700 18,566

Maldivian .................. 27 2 22 - 51

Nepalese .................. 7,858 351 1,128 62 9,399

Okinawan ................. 3,513 2,625 2,816 1,645 10,599

Pakistani ................... 153,533 11,095 37,587 2,094 204,309

Singaporean ............ 1,437 580 307 70 2,394

SriLankan ................. 20,145 1,219 2,966 257 24,587

Taiwanese ................ 118,048 14,096 11,394 1,257 144,795

Thai ........................... 112,989 7,929 27,170 2,195 150,283

Vietnamese .............. 1,122,528 47,144 48,639 5,425 1,223,736

Other Asian, not specified3 ............. 146,870 19,576 195,449 7,535 369,430

Asian Population by Detailed Group: 2000 (continued)

25.12 Graphing Data from the Web (LO 25-1 to LO 25-5)

Find data on the web about a topic that interests you. Sites with data include

American Demographics Archives: www.inside .com/default.csp?entity 5 American Demo

Catalyst: www.catalystwomen.org/press_room/ factsheets.htm

FEDSTATS (links to U.S. government agencies): www.fedstats.gov

Food and Nutrition Information Center: www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/etext/000056.html

U.S. Census Bureau E-Stats: www.census.gov/eos/www/ebusiness6l4.htm

White House Briefing Room (economic issues): www.whitehouse.gov/fsbr/esbr.html

As Your Instructor Directs,

a. Identify at least seven stories in the data. b. Create visuals for three of the stories. c. Write a memo to your instructor explaining why you

chose these stories and why you chose these visuals to display them.

d. Write a memo to some group that might be interested in your findings, presenting your visuals as part of a short report.

e. Print out the data and include it with a copy of your memo or report.

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Module 25 Using Visuals 435

Subject lines are the title of a letter, memo, or e-mail message. Headings within a document tell the reader what information you will discuss in that section.

Good subject lines are specific, concise, and appropriate for your purposes and the response you expect from the reader. Subject lines are required in memos, optional in letters.

• Put in good news if you have it. • If information is neutral, summarize it. • Use negative subject lines if the reader might not read the mes-

sage, needs the information to act, or if the negative is your error. • In a request that is easy for the reader to grant, put the subject of

that request or a direct question in the subject line. • When you must persuade a reluctant reader, use a common

ground, a reader benefit, or a directed subject line that makes your stance on the issue clear.

Headings are single words, short phrases, or complete sentences that indicate the topic in a document section. Headings must be parallel—that is, they must use the same grammatical structure— and must cover all the information until the next heading.

The most useful headings are talking heads, which sum up the content of the section.

Weak: Problem

Cause 1

Cause 2

Cause 3

Better: Communication Problems between Air Traffic

Controllers and Pilots

Selective Listening

Indirect Conversational Style

Limitations of Short-Term Memory

Exercises

1. Idea 2. Hey there! 3. Are you around? 4. Benefits Change 5. Special Invitation 6. A Word About Your Vacation 7. Marketing, the Public Relations Department, and the people

in Shipping and Receiving 8. Principal Investor Concerns

a. Why expand into new markets? b. Return on investments. • Thinking about how to create greater efficiencies.

9. Goals for 2014

• Expanding into China. • Mexico market expansion. • What we can do to improve market share in Brazil.

10. Presentations

1. Martha Denham 2. Mr. Hamilton Abruzzese 3. Joey 4. Solomon “Aye, Aye” Pinker

Check your answers to the odd-numbered exercises at the back of the book.

Writing Subject Lines and Headings

Polishing Your Prose

Unit 6 Cases for Communicators

In countries like Jordan, where water is in short supply, Nader Atmeh hopes to help conserve the precious resource with Keenwash, the waterless car wash business he founded with his sons. Keenwash uses a nontoxic spray-on solution that is almost entirely biodegradable. It is mixed and bottled at a factory in Amman, Jordan, and emulsifies dirt, making it easy to be wiped off with a cloth. With the typical car wash using 50 gallons of water per vehicle, the water savings amounts to hundreds of thousands of gallons annually.

Though waterless car washes have been around in the United States for years, they have yet to catch on in Jordan. Atmeh, In fact, got the idea for Keenwash while visiting a waterless car wash in Dallas in 2003. But while testing U.S. products in his native country, he was unimpressed. That led the pharmacist and cosmet- ics and household cleaning product manufacturer to develop his

own formula. Atmeh founded his company in 2008 and to date has cleaned 35,000 cars.

Keenwash is expanding to other markets. There are now five franchises in Saudi Arabia, and one each in Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and the West Bank. Hassan Atmeh, one of Nader’s sons, is hoping to sell 250 franchises in Egypt.

Individual Assignment

Imagine that you work in the marketing department at Waterless Car Wash of America (WCWA), a company with car washes in

Waterless Wonder!

Source: Nick Leiber, “Keenwash: A Waterless Car Wash from the Middle East,” Bloomberg Businessweek, June 16, 2011, http://www.businessweek. com/magazine/content/11_26/b4234046583125.htm.

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436 Unit Six Research, Reports, and Visuals

several states on the East Coast that wishes to expand westward. It’s web accounts manager presents an opportunity to write an online questionnaire to gather critical data about potential franchi- sees’ demographics and their desire to open a WCWA franchise in the Midwest or Southwest.

The questionnaire, which will be put on WCWA’s website, will appear immediately after visitors log in with their user name and password. Potential franchisees can bypass filling out the question- naire, but they will continue to see it on return visits until they fill it out. Return visitors who have completed the questionnaire will not see it a second time.

Your manager has created a list of 10 general question areas for the questionnaire.

1. How did you learn about WCWA’s website?

2. Did WCWA’s business model convince you to apply for a franchise?

3. Have you ever used a WCWA car wash?

4. If not, do you intend to visit one? When?

5. How many of these people have been using a WCWA car wash already?

6. If you have used a WCWA car wash before, how many times have you used one?

7. If you have used a WCWA car wash before, what do you think of the quality of its service?

8. What previous experience do you have in business?

9. Will you require assistance in securing financing for a franchise?

10. What makes you most interested in a WCWA franchise?

Before you begin writing the questionnaire, consider these points:

• What type of questions should I write—open or closed? • Who is the population for this questionnaire?

• Is my sample a random sample, a convenience sample, or a judgment sample?

• How does the sample type affect my ability to generalize my findings?

As you write the questionnaire, ask yourself the following questions:

• Are my questions phrased in such a way as to be neutral and clear?

• Have I made any inappropriate assumptions in my questions? • Am I using branching questions where appropriate? • Have I structured the questionnaire so that easier questions

come before harder questions? • Do my questions cover the necessary points as outlined by my

manager? • Have I used indentations and white spaces effectively?

Make the questionnaire clear, concise, and easy to tabulate.

Group Activity

WCWA has now gathered the required demographic and viewing habit information, and discussions have already begun about the future. Some executives believe that the questionnaire program should be ended, while others think it should be extended indef- initely as part of the overall promotional approach for WCWA’s franchising program.

You and your colleagues in the marketing department have been asked to present a recommendation report to executives on this very issue. You know that the campaign has done well, but you are not sure if it has generated enough interest to warrant its continuation.

With other members of your group, brainstorm questions whose answers will guide your writing of the report. For each question, brainstorm one or more possible stories the data might tell and which kind of visual would best tell that story.

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7 Job Hunting Module 26 Researching Jobs

Module 28 Job Application Letters Module 29 Job Interviews

Module 27 Résumés

Module 30 Follow-Up Letters and Calls and Job Offers

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