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Literature review
Introduction
Sufism, also known as Al-Sufiyya or Tasawwuf is a subcategory of Islam that was adopted by Muslims hundreds of years ago. Norms, rituals, ethics, values, and faith practices of Islam are derived from Sufism and Tasawwuf. Within Sufism, there are many different types of Sufi beliefs and practices. Nonetheless, they all have one thing in common: to have a personal experience with God through a mystical journey. In the 21st century, Sufism was losing its popularity and was widely misunderstood, until it started regaining some momentum after the terrorist attacks that happened in New York and London. The movements of Sufism were very much against the extreme violence that was demonstrated in these attacks and Sufis took it into their hands to make peace and promote the love of God.
This literature review aims to explore the Sufism movement in the Middle East, particularly in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Through discovering the relevant representation of Sufism in the UAE, a more detailed review will be specifically based within the context of Dubai. Al-Jumairi presents the history and the roots of Sufism in UAE, which is traced back to the 17th century.1 Comment by Latifa MK: Who is Al-Jumairi, his name was brought up so randomly Comment by Latifa MK: This sentence seems out of place
The structure of this literature review will include the key definitions of the complex terminologies of Sufism, the history and origins of Sufism in the Middle East, the development of the Sufism community, the cultural and traditional significance of Sufism regarding changes in the UAE and the identified gaps of the available literature. Furthermore, in order to maintain a better comprehension of the concept, it is important to analyze and critique the existing literature on Sufism. This literature review will also provide areas for further research, aiming to contribute to the Sufi movements in the UAE.[footnoteRef:1] [1: Knysh, Alexander. "Contextualizing the Salafi–Sufi conflict (from the northern Caucasus to Hadramawt)." Middle Eastern Studies 43, no. 4 (2007): 503-530. 2 Knysh, Alexander. "Contextualizing the Salafi–Sufi conflict” 3 Saif, Liana. "Global Sufism: Boundaries, Structures, and Politics, by Francesco Piraino and Mark Sedgwick (eds.)." Aries 20, no. 2 (2020): 295-298.]
Definitions
The various Arabic terms that explain Sufism and the underlying meaning of the Islamic mysticism are complex themselves. In order to provide a clear understanding of Sufism by taking its complexities into consideration, I shall define several words that will be relevant throughout the paper. Firstly, Islamic mysticism is defined as an inward dimension of Islam that is considered to have the values, doctrines, institutions, and the ritual practices of Islam. Sufism is simply the purest feeling of one being close to God. It is about the spiritual closeness of the worshiper with God.2 Sufis are the individuals who practice Sufism. Silsila is a spiritual rank or order of Sufism that is strictly followed by Sufi doctrine, starting with the Prophet Muhammed and descending to Abu Bakr or Ali Ibn Abi Talib. A Murshid is a teacher of Sufism who is also in charge of a Sufi order. A Dergah is a Sufist Center that includes a Sufi madrassa, accommodations for Murids, students and caretakers, a Mosque and an eating area. A Halka is a crowd that assembles to study or practice Sufism and is very much present in the Dergah.
The current Sufi community in the UAE
Muslim communities have formed and dominated in Asia, Africa, Europe, north and south America, and Oceania. From the former days of Islam, the migrations of people have impacted political institutions in the countless areas that are now modern states. The main changes in the religious and political structure occurred due to the impact of Sufi-communities migrating to those areas. These religious conversions provided the basis for the change in the region. Many people had predicted the death of Sufism during the great attack that occurred in New York and London.5 After the terrorist attack, Sufism has been gaining momentum with the aim of spreading peace and love as they are firm believers against violence. In the 1990s, people started quitting Sufism with its rituals. Many people now moved on just as Muslim societies that have become civilized and modernized. [footnoteRef:2] [2: 4 Roberts, David B. "Qatar and the UAE: Exploring divergent responses to the Arab Spring." The Middle East Journal 71, no. 4 (2017): 544-562. 5 Ibid.]
Sufism can be described as the Islamic mysticism, as a complement to sharia, with its focus on the self-improvements and the urge to have direct contact with divinity. The ritual of visiting the holy shrine is part of the Sufi community. In the fight against terrorism after 9/11, many countries including the US, Europe, and Central Asia have backed the Sufi Muslims.
Origin of Sufism in UAE
The origin of Sufism in the UAE is traced to Seer, currently known as Ras Al-Khaimah. Some Sufis are said to have come from Handramount, Yemen, and their origin is estimated to have been traced back to 300 years ago.[footnoteRef:3] A manual script locally written discusses Sufism history in South-Eastern Arabia at around the 18th century.6 The writer of the manuscript, Alawi Bin Ahmad Bin Hassan Al-Hadadi, from Yemen, writes about his grandfather's virtues and memories in UAE at around the 18th century. Thus, it is comprehended that Sufism has a strong foothold in Ras Al-Khaima. Being a murid and previously having a few dergah. Saudi forces engulfed the Seer and forced inhabitants to destroy their shrines. The Hadadi Sufi order has disappeared in the regions of Oman's coast but the descendants of its foundation had remained in the UAE.7 This resulted in the reoccurrence of Sufism in UAE in the late19th century.8 The reappearance of Sufism has been emitted from Afghani immigrants. [3: 6 Ibid. 7 Yuting, Wang. "Chinese or Muslim or both? Modes of adaptation among Chinese Muslims in the United Arab Emirates." Connecting China and the Muslim World, edited by Ma Haiyun, Chai Shaojin, and Ngeow Chow Bing (2016): 55-72. 8 Ibid.]
There are different opinions on the origin of Islamic mysticism, however, Persia was one of the earliest in history that explains the origin of Islam. During the onset of Islam, East Mesopotamia and Khurasan was the opening door from where the ideas could penetrate. According to lbn Khaldun, Sufism has already been practiced by the Sahaba, but the spreading of materials around made the Sufis a role model who emphasizes the practice of spiritual Islam. Towards the end of the first millennium, amazing doctrines about the Sufi community were presented that explained how Sufis performed their spiritual practices. Abu Hashem, the first person to be called a Sufi, died in the C.716.9 All Sufis have claimed the origin from the leadership of Muhammed through Ali except Naqshbandis, who have claimed to have a direct connection to Muhammed through Abu Bakr. In the eleventh century,[footnoteRef:4] Sufis started spreading Sufism in the neighboring regions. In the 12th and 13th century, Sufism started spreading in Spain that was an influence of scholars.10 Between the 13th and 16th century, Sufism had developed a strong culture in the Islamic world. Sufism is one of the main factors that led to the spread of Islam and the creation of Islamic cultures in Asia and Africa. Muslims in South Asia have spread their influence to India in 1192 AD. [4: 9 Can, Lâle. "Connecting People: A Central Asian Sufi network in turn-of-the-century Istanbul." Modern Asian Studies (2012): 373-401. 10 Can, Lâle. "Connecting People: A Central Asian Sufi network in turn-of-the-century Istanbul." 11 Ibid.]
Over time there have different interpretations of the Qur’an in Islamic religion and the Islamic religion known as Sunnah. The interpretations took different approaches of involving exotic or literal translating of the Muslim sacred text. This tendency of translation mostly belongs to the Sunni branch of Islam found in Wahhabism. This doctrine rejected all other forms of religious knowledge that came their way. As mentioned previously, Sufism is referred to as a subcategory or branch of Islam, which is said to be one of the oldest trends in the Islamic world.11 It is believed to be one of the most interesting and dynamic Islamic cultures. In addition, it is referred as a general term under which other philosophical, social, and literal phenomena are placed. [footnoteRef:5]Sufism is said to be several Islamic schools of philosophy and mystical theology in the narrowest sense of view. Sufism is not just a religion but also a way of life where specific rituals like dancing, singing, incantation, and meditation are practiced.12 In this religion, only a few were believed to have a clear vision of Allah. Over time the followers of Sufism saw their relationship with Allah, Islam, and involvement in politics prepetuate. [5: 12 Rooney, C. (2015). Sufi Springs: Air on an Oud String. CounterText, 1(1), 38-58. 13 Jabnoun, Naceur, and KhalefaSedrani. "TQM, culture, and performance in UAE manufacturing firms." Quality management journal 12, no. 4 (2005): 8-20. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid]
Culture changes in the UAE
The UAE has a diverse society where individuals have different moral values and personal beliefs. In this country, there exists a small tribal community that co-existed independently according to the cultures and beliefs. 13 These cultures have been changing just as a result of the entry of other people from other nationalities that brought in different cultural norms. In the past 20 years, Sufism has been seen within Gulf States. Sufi scholars who came from other Muslim countries have been spreading the Sufism culture in the UAE through educating, publishing, and media. Some platforms have granted the Sufis to be presented in their own channel showcasing their culture.14
Al-Jumairi began to change the historical records about Sufism as he was dedicated to researching about the historical presence of Sufism in the UAE. He has studied the three figures of the Sufi Community. Sheikh Abderrahim Al-Marid lived in Dubai died in 2007.15 He also shared the history of his father who was a Sufi clerk. The Emirati environment is a combination of the Arab culture diffused with other cultures from East Africa and the Indian Subcontinent. The Islamic religion also had an impacted on the local architecture, the way of dressing, the music, and the general lifestyle of people in the UAE.[footnoteRef:6] This culture change was accelerated by Muslim practices such as conducting prayers in mosques that were scattered around the country.16 These practices have influenced the citizens and residents to start engaging in the practices which altered the way they lived. [6: 16 Hofer, Nathan. "Sufism in Fatimid Egypt and the problem of historiographical inertia." Journal of Islamic Studies 28, no. 1 (2017): 28-67. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. ]
The new cultural insight by Dubai makes it have an interest in moving it to the Emirates since Dubai has been a country with many cultural assets hence a destination for culture.17 The modern cultural movement in the UAE was to focus on maintaining culture in the country, literarily and artistically. It was to fight idleness, conflict, and cultural frustrations and promote intellectualism. The aim to increase the number of university students was also a result of this (Burkett and Theodore 24). Comment by Latifa MK: I don’t understand this sentence
The gaps evident in the culture of the UAE
UAE is one of the most demographically dynamic countries in the world by its huge welcome of a global audience. Nonetheless, UAE is maintaining its cultural legacy, the main source of which is Islamic history. The country is significantly influenced by allied cultures. Due to the incessant rise and fall of Wahhabism and Sufism in UAE, there is a cultural variation due to different followers of Wahhabism and Sufism.18 The socioeconomic and political fabric of the country has changed due to cultural diversities and educational thoughts rendered by the mystics.
Moreover, the fusion of various cultures may result in diversified political thoughts that may vary from person to person and can be a source of the cultural gap in society. The essence of Sufism is getting more and more pragmatic in the cultural values of the UAE.19 The core parameter of this practical approach of Sufism in Emirati culture is moral beliefs in the community. However, along with this, there is a probability of the cons of cultural gaps that hamper the growth of society. People with diverse backgrounds limit the scope of mutual understanding. A huge difference in the moral values of the people is seen as the moral values are related to the orientation of the cultures, which ultimately leads to the cultural gap.[footnoteRef:7] [7: 19 Roberts, David B. "Qatar and the UAE: Exploring divergent responses to the Arab Spring." The Middle East Journal 71, no. 4 (2017): 544-562. 20 Burkett, Theodore. "Emirati Students' Cultural Norms and University Teachers' Awareness: A SocioCulturalGap?." Perspectives (TESOL Arabia) 24, no. 1 (2016).]
Furthermore, the educational thoughts of Sufism and Wahhabism are somewhat different in terms of Silsila. Silsila is a spiritual order of Sufism, strictly followed by Sufi doctrine and has great historical importance.20 Wahhabi doctrine staunchly rejects the Sufi theology regarding Silsila. It is another likely source of the cultural gap. Cultural gaps are continuously increasing in the UAE due to the incursion of diverse people. There is a need to bridge the cultural gaps in the UAE by addressing them at an individual level. Moreover, the research into Sufism in the UAE is limited as only a few scholars have studied and are familiar with the branch of Islam. Documentation of Sufism is scarce as most people were illiterate and resources to document were widely unavailable, hence the gap in relevant literature on Sufism in the UAE.
References
Burkett, Theodore. "Emirati Students' Cultural Norms and University Teachers' Awareness: A SocioCulturalGap?." Perspectives (TESOL Arabia) 24, no. 1 (2016).
Hopkins, Sarah. "The effect of global English on culture and identity in the UAE: a double-edged sword." Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives 11, no. 2 (2014).
Hofer, Nathan. "Sufism in Fatimid Egypt and the problem of historiographical inertia." Journal of Islamic Studies 28, no. 1 (2017): 28-67.
Jabnoun, Naceur, and KhalefaSedrani. "TQM, culture, and performance in UAE manufacturing firms." Quality management journal 12, no. 4 (2005): 8-20.
Jabnoun, Naceur, and KhalefaSedrani. "TQM, culture, and performance in UAE manufacturing firms." Quality management journal 12, no. 4 (2005): 8-20.
Knysh, Alexander. "Contextualizing the Salafi–Sufi conflict (from the northern Caucasus to Hadramawt)." Middle Eastern Studies 43, no. 4 (2007): 503-530.
Roberts, David B. "Qatar and the UAE: Exploring divergent responses to the Arab Spring." The Middle East Journal 71, no. 4 (2017): 544-562.
Rooney, C. (2015). Sufi Springs: Air on an Oud String. CounterText, 1(1), 38-58.
Saif, Liana. "Global Sufism: Boundaries, Structures, and Politics, by Francesco Piraino and Mark Sedgwick (eds.)." Aries 20, no. 2 (2020): 295-298.
Yuting, Wang. "Chinese or Muslim or both? Modes of adaptation among Chinese Muslims in the United Arab Emirates." Connecting China and the Muslim World, edited by Ma Haiyun, Chai Shaojin, and Ngeow Chow Bing (2016): 55-72.
https://books.google.ae/books?hl=en&lr=&id=zm3QCgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=(sufism)+and+(persian+gulf)&ots=VEKHesD3cG&sig=4Syz9pvo9hB1VXTZdwIpDmqtqNQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=(sufism)%20and%20(persian%20gulf)&f=false
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