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The Historical and Geographical Setting of the Gospels

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1. The Persian Period (539–334 BC)

2. The Greek Period (334–166 BC)

3. The Maccabees and Jewish Independence (166–63 BC)

4. The Roman Period (63 BC–AD 135)

5. Geography and Ethnicities

OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

• Summarize the main events of Israel’s history from the close of the Old Testament period to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70

• Identify and summarize the significance of key historical figures for this period, including Alexander the Great, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, Judas Maccabeus, Caesar Augustus, Herod the Great, Pontius Pilate, and Herod Antipas

• Explain the significance of Hellenization for the period of Jesus and the Gospels, including the nature of Ptolemaic and Seleucid rule in Palestine

• Discuss the events leading up to the Maccabean Revolt and the period of Jewish independence under the Hasmonean dynasty

• Summarize the nature of Roman rule in Judea and Galilee, first under Herod the Great and then under the Herodian dynasty and Roman governors

• Identify the main geographical regions in and around Palestine

At the end of the Old Testament period, the dominant power in the ancient Near East was the Medo-Persian Empire. When the reader opens the New Testament, four hundred years have passed, and the Roman Empire is now in control of the whole of the Mediterranean region. A survey of the political, religious, and cultural changes that took place during this period is essential for understanding the world in which Jesus lived and the birth of the New Testament.

FIGURE 4.1—What’s in a Name?

Naming and Dating the Period between the Testaments

“Second Temple” or “Intertestamental” Period?

Many scholars prefer the designation “Second Temple” to “intertestamental” for the period leading up to the New Testament era. The first temple, completed by Solomon around 960 BC, was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 BC. The second temple, completed by Zerubbabel in 516 BC (and expanded later by Herod the Great), was eventually destroyed by the Romans in AD 70. Intertestamental period refers to approximately the same time frame, running from the writing of the last Old Testament book (Malachi; about 430 BC) to the birth of Jesus (about 4 BC). Second Temple is the more precise designation since it is unclear whether “intertestamental” culminates in the birth of Jesus, his public ministry, or the writing of the New Testament (late first century). Second Temple is also more acceptable to Jewish scholars, who do not recognize the divine inspiration of the second (New) Testament.

AD or CE?

For similar ecumenical reasons, the designations AD (Anno Domini, “the year of the Lord”) and BC (Before Christ) are often replaced with CE (Common Era) and BCE (Before the Common Era). “Common” refers to the time in which we live—the “Current Era.”

The Persian Period (539–334 BC)

The last major historical event in the Old Testament is the return of the Babylonian exiles to Israel under the Persian ruler Cyrus the Great. Unlike the Babylonians, who had destroyed the temple in Jerusalem and sent the Jews into exile, Cyrus had an enlightened policy of allowing exiled peoples to return to their homelands and worship their gods as they pleased. After conquering Babylon in 539 BC, Cyrus issued decrees allowing the Jews to return and rebuild the city and temple. More than forty-two thousand people returned with Zerubbabel to rebuild the temple (Ezra 1–6). More followed with Ezra (Ezra 7–10), and Nehemiah later returned to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Nehemiah 1–6; c. 445 BC). The last of the Old Testament books, Malachi, was written about this time (c. 430 BC).

Old Testament history ends with this return and restoration of Israel in the land. The period that followed is called the Second Temple period, or the intertestamental period (see fig. 4.1).

FIGURE 4.2—Foreign Domination of Israel

722 BC – AD 135

The Greek Period (334–166 BC)

Alexander the Great and the Hellenization of Palestine (334–323 BC)

One of the most remarkable leaders of the ancient world was Alexander the Great, the son of Philip II of Macedon. Philip was an ambitious ruler who had succeeded in unifying the Greek city-states and developing a mobile and effective army. When Philip’s plans to overthrow the Persian Empire were cut short by his assassination in 336 BC, Alexander took over both his father’s throne and his passion for conquest. Though only twenty years old, Alexander quickly consolidated his power in Greece and then swept eastward with his army. He repeatedly defeated the Persians and, in a very short time, conquered the whole of the eastern Mediterranean, including Syria, Egypt, Persia, and Babylon. Although Alexander died suddenly at age thirty-three (probably from malaria complicated by drunkenness—though poison has also been suggested!), in a mere thirteen years he established a vast empire stretching from Greece to Egypt in the south and India in the east.

Alexander’s most enduring legacy for New Testament background is his promotion of the process of Hellenization.

While Alexander’s swift conquest proved his military genius, his most influential role in history is his promotion of the process of Hellenization. Hellas means Greece, and Hellenization refers to the spread of Greek language and culture. Alexander, who had been trained by the philosopher Aristotle, had a deep affection for all things Greek and sought to introduce Greek ways throughout the territories he conquered. He founded Greek-style cities with theaters, public baths, and gymnasiums, and he encouraged the introduction of Greek customs and manners. Alexander also settled Greek colonists throughout his empire and encouraged his soldiers to marry local women. Although the Romans would later conquer the Greeks, in many ways the Greeks conquered the Romans, as the latter adopted Greek models of art, literature, philosophy, and religion.

Alexander the Great’s Conquests

FIGURE 4.3—The Language Milieu of First-Century Palestine

Because the Jews did not resist Alexander’s conquest, they were allowed a degree of independence, and temple worship continued unhindered. Nevertheless, Hellenization had a profound impact on Jewish society.1 Virtually every inhabitant of Israel came into contact with Greek culture, whether through soldiers, government officials, merchants, or landowners. While all of Judaism became Hellenized to one degree or another, this clash of cultures inevitably produced conflict. Many Jews—particularly those of the upper classes—willingly embraced Greek customs and philosophy as superior to their own. Others opposed what they viewed as the paganization of Judaism. The stage was being set for crisis and conflict.

One of the most important results of Hellenization for the background to the New Testament was the emergence of Koine (“common”) Greek as the lingua franca, or trade and diplomatic language, of the eastern Mediterranean. Throughout the “civilized” (Roman) world, anyone who could not speak Greek was considered a barbarian. Though Latin was the official language of the Roman Empire, it was spoken mainly in the West, and Greek remained the lingua franca throughout the empire. The Israel of Jesus’ day was mostly trilingual. Hebrew was still read and spoken in religious contexts; Aramaic—the lingua franca prior to Alexander’s conquests—was the language of the common people; and Greek was the language of trade and government. (Latin also would have been spoken by Roman officials.) Jesus probably conversed in all three languages, though most of his teaching was in Aramaic. The New Testament books are all written in Koine Greek, though the style and literary quality differs among the various authors. Occasional Aramaic, Hebrew, and Latin words appear, transliterated with Greek letters. It has sometimes been claimed that God divinely prepared Koine Greek as the perfect language for divine revelation, with its precise grammatical nuance and exact definitions of words. This linguistic argument is flawed, for no human language—including Greek—is free from ambiguities. Yet divine providence can be seen in the conquests of Alexander and the dissemination of the Greek language throughout the Mediterranean region. This linguistic homogeneity enabled the Christian missionaries to preach, teach, and write in a single language among the diverse peoples of the Roman Empire.

The three main languages of Israel in Jesus’ day were Greek, Aramaic, and Hebrew, although Hebrew was spoken mainly in religious contexts.

Seleucid and Ptolemaic Kingdoms in 198–166 BC

Ptolemaic Domination of Palestine (323–198 BC)

When Alexander died in 323 BC, a power struggle ensued for control of his empire. War and conflict between rival generals (known as the Diadochi, “successors”) eventually resulted in the establishment of two great dynasties. The dynasty of the Ptolemies was centered in Egypt, with Alexandria as its capital. The dynasty of the Seleucids was centered in Syria, with Antioch as its capital. Because Israel was strategically located between Syria and Egypt, the nation became caught in a tug-of-war between these two rivals. The Ptolemies gained control of Palestine and ruled Israel for 125 years. The Jews lived in relative peace and prosperity under Ptolemaic rule.

Codex Sinaiticus, a fourth-century manuscript containing the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) and the New Testament

During this time, Alexandria, Egypt, the capital of the Ptolemaic Empire, developed into a major center of scholarship and learning. A vibrant Greek-speaking Jewish community f lourished there. Since most Jews no longer spoke or read Hebrew, the need arose for a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. One of the most significant literary achievements of this period was the translation of the Septuagint (abbreviated LXX), the Greek version of the Old Testament. The Septuagint became the primary Bible of both Jews of the Diaspora and the early Christians (see fig. 4.4). Diaspora means “dispersion” and refers to Jews who were not living in Israel but were dispersed throughout the rest of the Mediterranean world.

FIGURE 4.4—The Septuagint

The Septuagint was the most widely used Greek translation of the Old Testament. The term is derived from the legend about its origin found in the Letter of Aristeas, written about the end of the second century BC. According to this letter, during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (284 – 247 BC), Ptolemy’s librarian Demetrius found that he was lacking a Greek translation of the Law of the Jews. Ptolemy sent a request to Eleazar, the Jewish high priest in Jerusalem, who sent 72 scholars, six from each of the twelve tribes, to undertake the task. The translation was reportedly completed in 72 days and was read to the assembled Jewish community, which rejoiced at its accuracy.

A later version of the story claims that by divine inspiration, all the scholars working independently produced an identical Greek text! The name Septuagint comes from the Latin word for seventy (septu aginta), a rounded-off reference to the 72 scholars who supposedly completed the work. The Roman numeral for seventy, LXX, is used as an abbreviation for the translation.

Though the details of the story are doubtful, it is likely that a Greek version of the Pentateuch arose in Alexandria in the third century BC. Because Hebrew was no longer widely spoken, Jews of the Diaspora (“dispersion,” Jews living outside of Israel) needed a Greek translation of the Scriptures. The Law was probably translated first, and the rest of the Hebrew Bible (the Prophets and the Writings) gradually followed. The LXX is a rather uneven translation, sometimes more literal, sometimes more free. Like the Hebrew Scriptures and the Greek New Testament, it also has its own textual history of transmission and recension.

Though far from a perfect translation, the Septuagint had a profound effect on the Judaism of the Diaspora and on the origins of Christianity:

The LXX became the Bible of Diaspora Jews, most of whom no longer spoke Hebrew. The translation was widely used in the synagogues throughout the Mediterranean.

The LXX provided Hebrew senses to many Greek words. For example, in classical Greek, the term doxa generally carried the sense of “opinion.” Its use in the LXX to translate the Hebrew keḇôḏ helped define its sense as “glory.” The LXX thus aided in the translation of Old Testament concepts for a Greek audience and gave the Christians a ready-made Greek vocabulary for preaching a gospel whose background lay in the Old Testament.

The LXX clarified Hebrew ideas that could have been misunderstood in the Gentile world. For example, in Joshua 4:24 in the LXX, the Hebrew phrase “hand of the Lord” is translated as “power of the Lord,” perhaps to avoid the anthropomorphism, which a Gentile might interpret literally.

The LXX provided the early Christians with a Bible that was understandable throughout the Mediterranean world. Christians could use it when preaching to both Jews and Gentiles. In this way, the LXX became a powerful apologetic tool for the early church. Most Old Testament quotations in the New Testament are taken from the LXX. An example of this apologetic value may be seen in Isaiah 7:4, where the Hebrew term ʿalmāh (“young woman”) is translated in the LXX with parthenos, a Greek term with strong connotations of virginity (cf. Matt. 1:23). Using the LXX, Christians could point to this Old Testament text as evidence for the virgin birth of Christ.

Seleucid Domination of Palestine (198–166 BC)

War and strife raged constantly between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. The Syrians failed repeatedly to gain control of Israel until 198 BC, when the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III (known as Antiochus the Great) defeated Egypt at the battle of Paneion and occupied Israel. Antiochus’s aspirations for dominance were dampened, however, as he faced a new and growing threat from the west, the rising power of Rome. When he invaded Greece, Rome intervened, forcing him to withdraw and requiring him to pay a huge annual tribute. The Romans also took his son to Rome as a hostage.

Antiochus IV “Epiphanes.” When Antiochus III’s son was released from Rome fourteen years later, he returned to Syria and succeeded his brother Seleucus IV as ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Under Antiochus IV (175–163 BC), Israel would face perhaps its greatest threat to survival ever. Antiochus called himself Epiphanes, “manifest one” or “[god] revealed”—a claim to be divine. His erratic behavior, however, earned him the nickname “Epimanes,” meaning “madman.”2 Antiochus was not satisfied with the gradual assimilation of Hellenistic ideas that had taken place under the Ptolemies. He sought to bring Israel fully into his empire by turning it into a Hellenistic state. Facing crushing tribute to Rome, he increased taxation and repeatedly looted the treasures of the Jerusalem temple. He sold the office of high priest to the highest bidder, first to Jason, the brother of the high priest Onias III, and later to a man named Menelaus, who did not even have priestly ancestry. Jason, an ardent Hellenist, began to turn Jerusalem into a Greek city, building a gymnasium below the sacred temple site. Greek-style games were held, in which Jewish youths competed nude in Greek style. Operations were even performed to reverse the effects of circumcision. While many Jews were enamored with Hellenism and so were receptive to such changes, others were outraged. Increasing division arose between reforming Hellenists, who favored the adoption of Greek ideas, and conservative Hasidim (meaning “holy ones”), who opposed them.

Coin with the bust of Antiochus IV “Epiphanes,” whose policy of forced hellenization provoked the Maccabean revolt

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

The “abomination of desolation.” The situation went from bad to worse after one of Antiochus’s military campaigns against Egypt. Outside of Alexandria, a Roman diplomat met him and ordered him to turn back or face the wrath of Rome. Knowing firsthand the power of Rome from his years as a hostage, Antiochus withdrew in humiliation. Aware that many in Jerusalem were still loyal to the Egyptian Ptolemies, Antiochus vented his anger against the city by looting the temple, destroying the city walls, and killing thousands of citizens. In the dark days that followed, he moved to abolish Judaism. Sabbath observance, circumcision, and keeping the law were banned. Copies of Scripture were confiscated and burned. On Chislev (November-December) 25, 167 BC, an altar dedicated to Zeus Olympius was set up in the Jerusalem temple, and pigs and other unclean animals were offered as sacrifices. This idolatrous desecration of the temple is referred to in Daniel as the “abomination of desolation”—the sacrilege that brings destruction (11:31; 12:11). Jesus would later draw on this powerful imagery to predict the horrors of the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Mark 13:14, par.).

FIGURE 4.5—Antiochus IV “Epiphanes”

Prototype of Antichrist

The calculated and ruthless attempts by Antiochus IV Epiphanes to eradicate Judaism were not quickly forgotten by the Jews, setting a standard of evil which later generations recalled when evil rulers set themselves up in opposition to God’s people (see Dan. 7:7 – 8; 8:9 – 14; 11:21 – 35; Testament of Moses 6 – 10; Mark 13:14, par.). New Testament writers echo these passages from Daniel, identifying the coming world ruler variously as “antichrist” (1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John 7), “man of lawlessness” (2 Thess. 2:1 – 12), and the “beast” (Rev. 11:7; 13:1 – 18).

And the king [Antiochus] sent letters by messengers to Jerusalem and the towns of Judah; he directed them to follow customs strange to the land, to forbid burnt offerings and sacrifices and drink offerings in the sanctuary, to profane sabbaths and festivals, to defile the sanctuary and the priests, to build altars and sacred precincts and shrines for idols, to sacrifice swine and other unclean animals, and to leave their sons uncircumcised. They were to make themselves abominable by everything unclean and profane, so that they would forget the law and change all the ordinances.

He added, “And whoever does not obey the command of the king shall die.”

— 1 Maccabees 1:44 – 50 NRSV

The Maccabees and Jewish Independence (166–63 BC)

Though the desecration of the temple by Antiochus Epiphanes was one of the bleakest moments in Jewish history, out of this came one of the brightest, the Maccabean Revolt and a period of Jewish independence.

The Maccabean Revolt (166–135 BC)

Pious Jews realized that Antiochus’s actions threatened their national and religious existence. Rebellion broke out in the Judean village of Modein, where an old priest named Mattathias was ordered by a Syrian official to offer a pagan sacrifice. Mattathias refused, and another Jew stepped forward to perform the sacrifice. Infuriated, Mattathias rushed forward and killed both the man and the Syrian official. He destroyed the pagan altar and fled with his five sons into the hills. There they gathered an army of rebels to fight the Syrians. They were joined by the Hasidim, the pious separatists who desired to purge Judaism of pagan influence.

Mattathias died in 166 BC, leaving his son Judas to lead the revolt (166–160 BC). Judas’s prowess in battle earned him the nickname “Maccabeus,” from the Aramaic word meaning “hammer.” From this name, the rebellion came to be called the Maccabean Revolt, and its leaders the Maccabees. Judas developed the Jews into an effective guerrilla army and repeatedly defeated the Syrians in battle. After some setbacks, he eventually succeeded in liberating the temple in Jerusalem. On Chislev (November-December) 25, 164 BC, exactly three years after the desecration by Antiochus Epiphanes, Judas cleansed the temple and reinitiated Jewish sacrifices. This victory became commemorated in the Jewish festival of Hanukkah, meaning “dedication” (also called the Festival of Lights). The story of the victory of Judas and his brothers is told in the apocryphal books of 1 and 2 Maccabees (see chap. 5, pp. 180–81).

The Hasmonean Dynasty (135–63 BC)

After Judas was killed in battle in 160 BC, leadership passed to his brother Jonathan (160–143 BC). In 152 BC Alexander Balas, a claimant to the Syrian throne seeking Maccabean support, appointed Jonathan to the office of high priest (1 Macc. 10:18–20; 14:30). This marks a significant transition as the Jewish high priesthood changed family dynasties, from the line of Zadok, which had held the office for centuries, to the family line of the Maccabees.

When Jonathan was captured and executed in 143 BC, his brother Simon took over leadership (143–135 BC). Simon gained even greater political independence from the Syrians and was acclaimed by the people as “leader and high priest” (1 Macc. 14:41). Though not officially called “king” (his grandson Aristobulus I would be the first to take that title), Simon’s rule marks the beginning of the Hasmonean dynasty,3 a line of priest-kings that would rule Israel until the Roman occupation in 63 BC.

On Hanukkah, the celebration of the victory of the Maccabees, lamps are lit to show that darkness will give way to light.

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

Modern burial site of the Maccabees. This area is where the Jewish revolt of 166 BC against Antiochus Epiphanes began. The burial chambers are topped by heavy blocks.

Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com

FIGURE 4.6—The Hasmonean Dynasty

Partial listing

While the Maccabean Revolt ended Seleucid domination of Israel, the subsequent history of the Hasmonean dynasty is one of power struggles and political intrigue. Simon and two of his sons were assassinated in 135 BC by Ptolemy, Simon’s son-in-law. His only surviving son, John Hyrcanus (135–104 BC), took the throne and began an expansionist policy. He defeated the Idumeans in the south (the ancient Edomites, descendants of Jacob’s brother Esau; Idumea is Latin for Edom) and forced Judaism on them. He also conquered the Samaritans, destroying their temple on Mount Gerizim.4 Such actions increased the animosity between Jews and Samaritans that had begun in the Old Testament era (Ezra 4). Evidence of this antagonism appears repeatedly in the Gospels (Luke 9:51–56; 10:25–37; John 4:9). Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC), the son of John Hyrcanus, continued to expand the Jewish state, gaining territories as extensive as the kingdoms of David and Solomon.

Ironically, these later Hasmoneans openly adopted Hellenistic ways and became involved in the political machinations common to Hellenistic kings. Out of a growing alienation, the religious-minded Hasidim began to separate themselves from the Hasmonean leadership and from political life in general. Two groups that emerged from this separation were the Pharisees and the Essenes. Both groups opposed not only the corruption and Hellenization of the Hasmonean priest-kings but also the elimination of the traditional balance of power between the king from the line of David and the high priest descended from Levi. In their eyes, the Hasmoneans illegitimately combined both offices. In opposition to the Pharisees, the party of the Sadducees arose from the supporters of the Hasmonean priesthood. They were aligned with the Jerusalem aristocracy and the temple priesthood. We will examine the beliefs and practices of these groups in chapter 5.

The Roman Period (63 BC–AD 135)

Roman domination of Judea began in 63 BC, when the Roman general Pompey captured a Jerusalem weakened by a power struggle between two Hasmoneans, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, both sons of Alexander Jannaeus. Both appealed to the conquering Romans to make them king. The Romans chose Hyrcanus but appointed him only as high priest, without ruling authority. Aristobulus was imprisoned.

Hyrcanus II had an influential adviser named Antipater, an Idumean (or Edomite) whose father had served as governor of Idumea under Alexander Jannaeus. In 47 BC, when Hyrcanus and Antipater supported Julius Caesar against Pompey in a Roman civil war, Caesar rewarded them by making Hyrcanus II ethnarch (“ruler of the people”—a title for a minor ruler) and appointing Antipater governor of Judea. Antipater in turn appointed his sons Phasael and Herod as military governors of Jerusalem and Galilee. Although Antipater was ethnically an Idumean rather than a Jew, the Romans made little distinction between the two groups, and under Hasmonean rule the Idumeans had been compelled to convert to Judaism.

When Antipater was assassinated by poisoning in 43 BC, a power struggle ensued between Antigonus, the son of Aristobolus II, on the one side, and Hyrcanus II and Antipater’s two sons Herod and Phasael, on the other. Antigonus was supported by the Parthians, the empire east of Palestine and archenemy of Rome. In the war that followed, Phasael and Hyrcanus were captured, and Phasael committed suicide in prison. Hyrcanus was mutilated by having his ears cut off, rendering him unfit for the priesthood (Lev. 21:16–23). Herod, however, fled first to the mountaintop fortress of Masada in the Judean desert and then escaped to Rome. There he appealed to the Roman senate for help, and in 40 BC he was appointed king of Judea. Returning to Palestine, he organized an army and by 37 BC had defeated Antigonus and his Parthian supporters. He ordered the execution of Antigonus, the last of the Hasmonean rulers. The Hasmonean dynasty was over. The Herodian dynasty had begun.

The Roman Empire, mid first century AD

Herod the Great

Herod the Great ruled as king of the Jews under Roman authority for thirty-three years, from 37–4 BC. It is this Herod who appears in the account of Jesus’ birth (Matt. 2:1–19; Luke 1:5). From the start, Herod proved to be an extraordinary political survivor. When civil war raged in Rome between Mark Antony and Octavian, Herod first sided with Antony and his ally Cleopatra VII, queen of Egypt. When Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 BC, Herod switched sides, convincing Octavian of his loyalty. Following his victory, Octavian returned to Rome, where the Roman senate made him imperator, or supreme military leader, and gave him the honorary title “Augustus” (“exalted one”). Historians mark this event as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire, the transfer from rule by the senate to rule by a supreme emperor.

An aqueduct built by Herod the Great in Caesarea Maritima

Under the patronage of Octavian—now Caesar Augustus—Herod’s position as king of the Jews was secure. For his part, Herod would prove to be a loyal subject to his Roman overlords, maintaining order in Israel and protecting the eastern flank of the Roman Empire against the Parthian Empire.

Roman helmet

Herod was a volatile combination of a clever and efficient ruler and a cruel tyrant. On the one hand, he was distrustful, jealous, and brutal, ruthlessly crushing any potential opposition. Because he was an Idumean, the Jews never accepted him as their legitimate king, a rejection that infuriated him. Having usurped the Hasmonean rulers, he constantly feared conspiracy. To legitimize his claim to the throne, he divorced his wife Doris and married the Hasmonean princess Mariamne, later executing her when he suspected she was plotting against him. Three of his sons, another wife, and his mother-in-law met the same fate when they, too, were suspected of conspiracy. The Roman emperor Augustus once said he would rather be Herod’s pig than his son, a play on words in Greek, for the two words sound alike (hus and huios).5 Herod, trying to be a legitimate Jew, would not eat pork, but he freely murdered his sons! Matthew’s account of Herod’s slaughter of the infants in Bethlehem fits well with what we know of the king’s ambition, paranoia, and cruelty (2:1–18).

Herod the Great was a volatile combination of a clever and efficient ruler and a cruel tyrant.

One of the many building projects of Herod the Great, the Herodium is located 3.5 miles southeast of Bethlehem. According to Josephus, it served as a palace and a fortress for Herod, and he was buried here in 4 BC. The Herodium later served as a base for Jewish rebels during the first and second revolts against the Romans.

Phoenix Data Systems

Herodium

At the same time, Herod presented himself as the protector of Judaism and sought to gain the favor of the Jews. He encouraged the development of the synagogue communities and in time of calamity remitted taxes and supplied the people with free grain. He was also a great builder, a role that earned him the title “the Great.” His greatest project was the rebuilding and beautification of the temple in Jerusalem, restoring it to greater splendor than even in the time of Solomon (see chap. 5, pp. 160–63, for a description of the temple).

A reproduction of Herod’s palace in Jerusalem. From the model of Jerusalem at the Israel Museum.

The likely location of Herod the Great’s tomb on the Herodium

Mark L. Strauss

Caesarea Maritima, built by Herod the Great, was the center of Roman administration for Palestine during the time of Christ.

Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com

Judea prospered economically during Herod’s reign. He extended Israel’s territory through conquest and built fortifications to defend the Roman frontiers. A committed Hellenist and an admirer of Roman culture, Herod built Greek-style theaters, amphitheaters, and hippodromes (outdoor stadiums for horse and chariot racing) throughout the land. While this earned him the favor of many upper-class Jews, it brought disdain from the more conservative Pharisees and the common people. The Herodians mentioned in the Gospels (Mark 3:6; 12:13) were Hellenistic Jewish supporters of the Herodian dynasty who favored the stability and status quo brought by Roman authority.

The Kingdom of Herod the Great

Herod died in 4 BC (cf. Matt. 2:19), probably from intestinal cancer. As a final act of vengeance against his contemptuous subjects, he rounded up leading Jews and commanded that at his death they should be executed. His reasoning was that if there was no mourning for his death, at least there would be mourning at his death!6 (At Herod’s death, the order was overruled and the prisoners were released.7)

FIGURE 4.7—Judaism as a Religio Licita under Roman Rule?

Because of the support Antipater and Hyrcanus II gave to the Romans, Julius Caesar granted favored status to the Jews. Taxes were reduced and the city walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt. Jewish territories were exempted from providing troops for Roman military service. * Many scholars have claimed that at this time Judaism was officially declared a religio licita, a “legal/licensed religion,” with the full protection of Rome. † This action exempted Jews from pagan religious practices and, later, from the worship of the emperor required of all Roman subjects. It also was significant for the spread of the gospel, since Christianity was viewed in its early days as a sect within Judaism and so protected by law. State sanctioned persecution against the Christians began only when Christianity was beginning to be viewed as a separate religion and so a religio illicita (an “illegal religion”), no longer sharing Judaism’s legal protections.

In recent years this idea of Judaism as a religio licita has been challenged, since the term does not appear in Roman law, per se, and since the Romans generally tolerated the religions of subject peoples. The special respect Rome gave to Judaism was based more on the religion’s great antiquity and the support the Jews had historically given to Rome. ‡ Christians were certainly persecuted throughout the first two centuries, but, according to this view, this was not because of Christianity’s official status as a religio illicita. (Official empirewide persecution began only in AD 250 by decree of the emperor Decius.) Rather, Christians were persecuted for other peculiarities, such as their denial of the Roman gods, their “unsocial” behavior (since so much of social life revolved around pagan religion), and their belief in Christ’s supremacy over the state and the emperor.

Whether or not Judaism and Christianity had official statuses as licita and illicita, there is no doubt that Christians had a certain degree of cover when they were viewed as part of the venerated tradition of Judaism, and that this protection declined when Christianity was increasingly viewed as a distinct religion.

* Josephus Ant. 14.10.7–13 §§211–28.

† The term religio licita was first used of Judaism by church father Tertullian (c. 155–c. 240) in Apologeticum 21:1. See E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian; A Study in Political Relations, 2nd ed. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1981), 133–36.

‡ P. F. Esler, Community and Gospel in Luke–Acts: The Social and Political Motivations of Lucan Theology (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 1996), 211–14; Görge K. Hasselhoff and Meret Strothmann, eds., “Religio licita?” Rom und die Juden (Studia Judaica 84; De Gruyter, 2016).

The Herodian Dynasty

Herod had changed his will several times during his life, and after his death it was contested by three of his sons. They appealed to Caesar Augustus, who divided the kingdom among them.

Archelaus (4 BC–AD 6) became ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, with the promise that if he ruled well, he would be made king. Instead, he proved to be oppressive and erratic, and Augustus removed him from office in AD 6. Matthew noted that Joseph and Mary moved to Galilee to avoid Archelaus’s rule (2:21–23). When Archelaus was removed from office, Judea and Samaria were transferred to the control of Roman governors, known as prefects and later procurators. The most important of these for the study of the New Testament is Pontius Pilate (AD 26–36), under whose administration Jesus was crucified. Other governors who appear in the New Testament are Felix (AD 52–59) and Festus (AD 59–62), before whom Paul stood trial (Acts 23–26).

FIGURE 4.8—The Herodian Dynasty

Partial listing; rulers in bold type

The Herodian Kingdoms. After AD 6, the territory formerly allotted to Archelaus was ruled by successive Roman governors.

Herod Antipas became tetrarch of Galilee and Perea from his father’s death in 4 BC until he was deposed by the emperor Caligula in AD 39. The title “tetrarch” originally meant ruler of a fourth part of a region but came to be used of any minor ruler. This is the Herod of Jesus’ public ministry. He imprisoned and eventually executed John the Baptist when John spoke out against his marriage to Herodias, his brother Philip’s ex-wife (Luke 3:19–20; Mark 6:17–29, par.). He also wondered about Jesus’ identity when people speculated that John had risen from the dead (Mark 6:14–16, par.). When warned by some Pharisees that Herod was seeking his life, Jesus derisively called him “that fox,” probably a reference either to his insignificance or to his cunning and deceit (Luke 13:31–32). Eventually Antipas got his wish to see Jesus when Pilate sent Jesus to stand before him at his trial (Luke 23:7–12; cf. Acts 4:27).

Herod Philip became tetrarch of Iturea, Trachonitis, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, and Batanea, regions north and east of Galilee. He died without an heir, and his territory became part of the Roman province of Syria. He is mentioned in the New Testament only in Luke 3:1 (the Philip of Mark 6:17 [cf. Matt. 14:3] is a different son of Herod the Great).

Only two other rulers in the Herodian dynasty appear in the New Testament, both in Acts. Herod Agrippa I was the son of Aristobulus and the grandson of Herod the Great. He executed James, the brother of John, and arrested Peter (Acts 12). His death at Caesarea as judgment by God is recorded both by Luke and by the Jewish historian Josephus (12:19–23; Josephus, Ant. 19.8.2 §§343–52). Herod Agrippa II was the son of Agrippa I. It was this Herod, together with his sister Bernice, who was invited by the Roman governor Festus to hear Paul’s defense at Caesarea (Acts 25–26). Another sister, Drusilla, was married to the Roman governor Felix (Acts 24:24).

Roman Rule and the Pax Romana

When Augustus became emperor in 31 BC, the Roman Empire entered a period of relative peace known as the Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”). Never before had the whole Mediterranean region had the kind of political stability that Rome brought. The Mediterranean Sea became a “Roman Lake.”

FIGURE 4.9—Rulers of Judea in the New Testament Period

Names in bold appear in the New Testament

The stability brought by Roman occupation allowed relative freedom of travel and a large degree of order throughout the empire, a situation ideal for the spread of Christianity. The Romans built durable roads for the movement of their armies, the remnants of many of which can be seen today. These roads would prove invaluable for traveling Christian missionaries. The Roman system of law and order also gave Christians a measure of protection as they went from town to town preaching the gospel.

Of course, peace is a relative term, and the Romans enforced this Pax Romana through the ruthless suppression of revolt. The Roman historian Tacitus quoted the Scottish general Calgacus speaking to his troops on the eve of a battle against the Roman legions. He said the Romans are “robbers of the world, having by their universal plunder exhausted the land. . . . Robbery, butchery and pillaging they call ‘government’; they create a wasteland and call it ‘peace.’ ”8 What to the Romans was law and order and “peace” was to the conquered peoples destruction and oppression.

Robbery, butchery and pillaging they call government; they create a wasteland and call it “peace.” — Tacitus, quoting the Scottish leader Calgacus’s assessment of the Pax Romana

Roman government. As emperor, Augustus reorganized the Roman provinces, dividing them into two types, senatorial and imperial. The senatorial provinces were governed by proconsuls appointed by the Roman senate for one-year terms. These were usually the more loyal and peaceful Roman territories, with little need for a large military presence. Two proconsuls are named in the book of Acts, Sergius Paulus of Cyprus (13:7–8) and Gallio of Achaia (18:12). The imperial provinces were governed by legates appointed by the emperor himself.

Caesar Augustus built the “Altar of Peace” in Rome to celebrate his inauguration of the Pax Romana.

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

FIGURE 4.10—Main Roman Emperors of the New Testament Period

Caesar Augustus or Octavian (30 BC–AD 14) was the emperor associated with the census at Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1). Demonstrating extraordinary skills as leader and administrator, Augustus inaugurated the Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”), an unprecedented period of peace and stability throughout the Mediterranean region. The freedom and relative safety of travel afforded by this peace would prove to be major factors for the rapid expansion of Christianity.

Tiberius (AD 14–37) was the emperor during Jesus’ public ministry (Luke 3:1). It was to him Jesus referred when he said, “Give back to Caesar what is Caesar’s and to God what is God’s” (Mark 12:17, par.).

Caligula (AD 37–41) provoked a crisis among the Jews by demanding that his image be set up in the Jerusalem temple. Agrippa I eventually convinced Caligula to cancel the order, and the emperor was assassinated before it was carried out. Paul may be alluding to this event as a type of the antichrist when he speaks of the “man of lawlessness” who “sets himself up in God’s temple, proclaiming himself to be God” (2 Thess. 2:3–4).

Claudius (AD 41–54) expelled the Jews from Rome in AD 49, probably because of conflicts with Jewish Christians (Suetonius, Life of Claudius 25.4). Priscilla and Aquila came from Rome to Corinth at this time (Acts 18:2; cf. 11:28).

Nero (AD 54–68) was the Caesar to whom Paul appealed during his trial (Acts 25:10; 28:19). Later, in AD 64, Nero began the first major persecution against Christians, blaming them for a fire he was rumored to have set in Rome (Tacitus, Annals 15.44). Both Paul and Peter were probably martyred under Nero.

Vespasian (AD 69–79) was declared emperor while in Israel putting down the Jewish Revolt of AD 66–73. He returned to Rome, leaving his son Titus to complete the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

Domitian (AD 81–96) was the second emperor (after Nero) to persecute the church. This persecution is likely the background to the book of Revelation.

A bust of Caesar Augustus, first emperor of the Roman Empire (BC 30–AD 14)

Public Domain

These provinces were generally near the frontiers of the empire, where most of the Roman legions were based. Quirinius, mentioned in Luke 2:2, was legate of Syria from AD 6–9. Proconsuls and legates both were from the senatorial ranks, the highest aristocratic class in Roman society.

A third class of governors known as prefects and later procurators, as mentioned above, were from the lower “equestrian” ranks of the Roman aristocracy and governed smaller, newer, or more rebellious imperial provinces. Judea became such a province in AD 6 when Archelaus, the son of Herod the Great, was deposed. All of these governors (proconsuls, legates, prefects, and procurators) exercised imperium, the authority to act semiautonomously under the terms of an original provincial charter. As long as taxes were collected and rebellions put down, they were given a relatively free hand.

Some outlying Roman territories, like Judea under Herod the Great, functioned not as provinces but as client kingdoms ruled by local vassal kings. Such kings were approved and installed by the emperor. These kingdoms tended to function as “buffer states” between Rome and the enemies on its frontiers.

Judea under Roman governors. When Herod’s son Archelaus was removed and exiled by Augustus in AD 6, Judea converted from a client state to an imperial province governed by prefects and procurators. It would return to rule by king for a brief time under Herod’s grandson Agrippa I (AD 41–44).

A model of the Fortress of Antonia, which overlooked the temple. Pilate garrisoned troops from Caesarea there during the Jewish festivals.

Mark L. Strauss

While the seat of Roman government in Judea was at Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast, the governor would come to Jerusalem to maintain order during the various festivals. This is why the prefect Pontius Pilate was present in Jerusalem during Jesus’ trial. While the Roman governors had a mixed history of tolerance and oppression, most exhibited a general insensitivity toward the Jews. Pilate, who governed Judea from AD 26–36, was no exception. When he first arrived in AD 26, he provoked protests by secretly bringing army standards bearing the images of Roman emperors—idols in Jewish eyes—into Jerusalem. On another occasion, demonstrations broke out when Pilate used money from the temple treasury to build an aqueduct for Jerusalem. Pilate sent soldiers to surround and attack the protestors, killing many.9 Luke 13:1 refers to a similar episode near the Temple Mount, where Pilate massacred some Galileans, mixing their blood with their sacrifices. Typical of the Romans, Pilate met protest with ruthless and overwhelming force.

A plaque containing a reference to Pon-tious Pilate, discovered in the Roman theater in Caesarea Maritima, which was used by the Roman governers as headquarters. The plaque reads, “Tiberius [Po]ntius Pilate, [Pref]ect of Judea.”

Mark L. Strauss

Roman taxation. The cost of maintaining the vast Roman Empire was enormous, and Rome imposed a variety of taxes on its citizens, from direct poll and land taxes to indirect tolls or customs on goods in transit. During the time of Jesus, direct taxes were collected by officials of the emperor, but the right to collect indirect taxes was generally leased to the highest bidder. These were often members of the Roman equestrian class who would then use publicans, or “tax farmers,” to oversee the collection. This system was open to great abuse and corruption, for Rome did not generally control the surcharges imposed by their agents. Zacchaeus is identified in Luke as a “chief tax collector,” probably a tax farmer with authority over other collectors (Luke 19:2). Levi may have been a subordinate to a tax farmer (Mark 2:14, par.). Since he was sitting in his “tax collector’s booth” on the road when Jesus encountered him, he may have been collecting customs on goods in transit, either for the Romans or for the local administration of Herod Antipas.

Roman coins with busts of various Roman emperors

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

Bust of Tiberius, emperor of Rome during Jesus’ ministry

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

The weight of this taxation could be devastating to a poor craftsman or farmer in Israel. Tax collectors were despised, not only because of their reputation for extortion but also because they worked for the hated Romans. A later rabbinic saying goes so far as to say it is permissible to lie to tax collectors to protect one’s property (m. Ned. 3:4)! Jesus’ association with tax collectors was an important part of his identification with the sinners and outcasts in Israel.

In addition to government taxes, Jews both in Israel and throughout the empire paid a half-shekel temple tax to pay for the completion and maintenance of the Jerusalem temple. After the destruction of the temple in AD 70, this tax was changed to a poll tax and was used to maintain the temple of Jupiter that the Romans built on the Temple Mount.

The Jewish Revolt of AD 66–73

Various factors converged to make Palestine a hotbed of dissent and political insurrection:

The Arch of Titus, constructed by his brother Domitian (later an emperor) to honor the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70

caamalf/Shutterstock.com

A detail on the Arch of Titus showing Roman soldiers carrying away the treasures of the temple, including the golden Menorah

Matt Ragen/Shutterstock

Traditional conflict between Hellenizers and conservatives

Widespread corruption of and oppression by wealthy aristocrats and landowners

Severe Roman taxation

Heavy-handed Roman suppression of opposition

At times incompetent and insensitive Roman administration

Judea Capta coin celebrating Titus’s defeat of Jerusalem. Male captive with hands behind his back and a weeping Judean woman with the inscription “Judea Conquered.” S.C. means that the Senate was consulted to mint the coin.

These factors, together with the history of successful revolt under the Maccabees, set the stage for the Jewish Revolt of AD 66–73.

Various protests and minor revolts had occurred throughout the first century, but all had been quickly suppressed by the Romans. Full-scale rebellion erupted in AD 66, when Gessius Florus was procurator of Judea. The emperor Nero sent his general Vespasian to put down the revolt. Vespasian began conquering the cities of Galilee and Judea, but the siege of Jerusalem was delayed when Nero committed suicide in AD 68 and a struggle ensued over his succession. Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by his troops and returned to Rome to defeat his rivals, leaving his son Titus to complete the battle for Jerusalem. In AD 70, after a horrific three-year siege, Jerusalem was taken and the temple destroyed. Josephus, who was present at the destruction, portrayed it in gruesome detail. Many died from a terrible famine; others were killed by Jewish infighting and by desperate bandits in the city; many thousands more were slaughtered by the Romans when they breached the walls.

Though pockets of Jewish resistance held out for several years after Jerusalem’s collapse, defeat was inevitable. The last citadel to fall was the mountaintop fortress at Masada in AD 73. To reach it, the Romans built a massive earthen ramp (still visible today). According to Josephus, when the Romans finally breached the walls, they found that the nine hundred Jewish defenders had committed suicide rather than surrender.10

Remnants of the Roman camp at Masada have been excavated.

Ted Chi/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0

The fortress of Masada, where Jewish Zealots held out for several years against the Romans. The Roman siege ramp is still visible in this aerial view.

Phoenix Data Systems

Excavations on Masada

Replica of a Roman siege machine

Yory Frenklakh/Shutterstock

FIGURE 4.11—Flavius Josephus

Historian or Propagandist? Jewish Defender or Traitor?

The name of the Jewish historian Josephus occurs frequently in this chapter as our most important primary source for first-century Jewish history. Josephus was not only an important historian but also one of the more fascinating, colorful, and controversial figures of the first century. Josephus can be given many paradoxical labels: Pharisee, priest, aristocrat, Jewish patriot, freedom fighter, traitor, Roman collaborator, scholar, author, historian, apologist, and propagandist.

Josephus was born around AD 37 to a Jewish aristocratic family with priestly and Hasmonean ancestry. He describes himself as a precocious child whose wisdom was sought after by his own Jewish teachers. As a young man, he examined the various sects of Judaism, choosing to become a Pharisee (Life 1–2 §§ 1–12).

Knowing the overwhelming might of Rome, Josephus tried unsuccessfully to dissuade his people from revolution. When hostilities broke out in AD 66, he felt compelled to side with his countrymen, becoming a military general in Galilee. The Romans subjugated Galilee until Josephus’s forces were besieged in the town of Jotapata. The Romans captured the city, but Josephus and forty companions hid in a cave. When Josephus proposed surrendering, the others threatened to kill him, pledging themselves to a suicide pact. Josephus shrewdly suggested that they draw lots, each man killing his companion and the last two committing suicide. When only Josephus and another man were left, Josephus convinced his companion to surrender. When he was brought before the Roman general Vespasian, Josephus accurately “prophesied” that Vespasian would be the next emperor of Rome. The general was impressed and took Josephus under his protection, eventually sending him to the siege of Jerusalem to serve as a translator and negotiator for Vespasian’s son Titus. There Josephus witnessed firsthand the horrors of the destruction of the city and temple (J.W.. 3.8.5–9 §§361–408; 5.3.3 §114).

After the war, Josephus was taken to Rome, where Vespasian and Titus became his patrons. He took on Vespasian’s family name, Flavius, and was given a villa and a stipend (Life 76 §§422–30). He spent much of the rest of his life writing. Four of Josephus’s works have survived: The History of the Jewish War, a seven-volume account of the Jewish revolution; The Antiquities of the Jews, a twenty-volume work tracing the history of the Jewish people from creation to Josephus’s own day; The Life of Josephus, which is both autobiography and apologetic for his role in the war; and Against Apion, a defense of the beliefs of Judaism against Apion, a pagan opponent.

While providing a wealth of information concerning first-century Judaism, Josephus is anything but an unbiased observer. His collusion with the Romans makes him at the same time pro-Roman and pro-Jewish. He blames not the Romans but undesirable elements among his people for the disaster that befell them. The Zealots and other rebels were not freedom fighters but rogues and bandits bent on the destruction of the Jewish state. At the same time, he seeks to convince his Roman readers of the antiquity and nobility of the Jewish religion.

Though generally a good historian, Josephus exhibits many shortcomings. Events are sometimes distorted and numbers exaggerated. Yet despite these faults, our knowledge of first-century history would be much poorer if not for the prolific pen of Flavius Josephus.

Lots from Masada

Mark L. Strauss

The early church historian Eusebius claimed that prior to the destruction of Jerusalem, the Jewish Christians there received an oracle telling them to flee the city and go to the town of Pella in the Decapolis. In this way, many escaped the destruction.11

After the War

After the war, Judea was reorganized as a Roman province, overseen by a legate with a permanent Roman legion stationed at Caesarea. The war had a profound and transforming effect on Judaism. With the destruction of the temple, the priestly hierarchy lost its influence and eventually disappeared from history. Study of Torah and worship in the synagogue replaced the sacrificial system as the heart of Jewish religious life. Particularly significant in this regard was the work of Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai, who in the years after the Jewish War established an academy for the study of the law at Jamnia (or Jabneh) on the Mediterranean coast. The discussions of this school and others like it unified Judaism into a relatively homogenous religious movement centered on the study of Torah (the law). This marks the beginning of rabbinic Judaism, the antecedent of today’s orthodox Judaism.

The Western, or “Wailing,” Wall. This wall was part of the western retaining wall of the temple platform on top of which Herod refurbished the actual temple building. The plaza in front of the wall was cleared in 1967 and then paved. Above it the Muslim shrine called the Dome of the Rock sits on the site of the Jerusalem temple.

www.HolyLandPhotos.org

Coins minted during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (AD 134), depicting the front facade of the temple in Jerusalem

Image courtesy of Heritage Auctions, HA.com

The destruction of Jerusalem also had a major impact on the young and growing Christian movement. Jesus had predicted the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple,12 and Christians saw the city’s defeat and the cessation of the temple ritual and sacrifices as God’s judgment on Israel for rejecting the Messiah and as divine vindication that a new era of salvation had begun. This new era was based not on animal sacrifices but on Jesus’ once-for-all sacrifice on the cross. The geographic and ethnic center of Christianity also shifted after the war. While before, Christians saw Jerusalem as the mother church, afterward Jewish Christianity decreased in influence. The split with Judaism that had begun throughout the Christian communities gained momentum.

Palestine and its neighbors

A second Jewish rebellion, known as the Bar Kokhba Revolt, broke out in AD 132 when the emperor Hadrian banned circumcision and ordered the building of a temple of Jupiter on the Temple Mount. The Jewish revolutionaries were led this time by Simon bar Koseba, a charismatic leader who was hailed by the famous rabbi Akiba as the Messiah. Simon was nicknamed “Bar Kokhba” (“son of the star”), a reference to the messianic “star” prophecy of Numbers 24:17. Again the mighty Roman legions moved in, and by AD 135, the rebellion had been crushed. After his defeat and humiliation, Bar Koseba was derisively called Bar Koziba, “son of a lie.” The Romans made Jerusalem a pagan city and forbade Jews from entering it on pain of death. Circumcision, observance of the Sabbath, and study of the law were banned. Not until 1948 would Israel emerge again as a political state.

The Jewish Revolt of AD 66–73 dramatically changed the face of Judaism, shifting the focus of religious devotion from temple to Torah (study of the law).

Geography and Ethnicities

Israel and Palestine

Today the terms Israel and Palestine have strong political connotations because of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the claim by both Israelis and Palestinians that the land is theirs. With reference to biblical times, however, the terms are often used synonymously, referring to the geographical region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Palestine is usually the more general geographical term, while Israel refers to the same region when identified as the Jewish homeland. Palestine is likely derived from the term Philistines, the ancient seagoing people on the Mediterranean coast. While the term appears in Greek writers as early as the fifth century BC, it became the official name of the country under the Romans in AD 135, after the second Jewish (Bar Kokhba) revolt.

The geography of Palestine is diverse but can be divided into four main regions: the coastal plain, the mountainous central region, the Jordan River valley, and the southern desert (the Negev). The Jordan River has its source north of the Sea of Galilee and empties into the Dead (or Salt) Sea in the south. Because the Dead Sea has no outlet, evaporation from it results in extremely high mineral content and thus no water life. The Dead Sea is also the lowest place on earth, at approximately 1,300 feet below sea level. The highest point in Israel is Mount Hermon, northeast of the Sea of Galilee, at approximately 9,200 feet above sea level. The “Sea” of Galilee is actually a freshwater lake, kidney-shaped and approximately twelve miles north to south and eight miles east to west. It is known in the Old Testament as the Sea of Chinnereth (Num. 34:11; Josh. 13:27 NRSV) and in the New Testament variously as the Sea (or Lake) of Galilee, the Lake of Gennesaret (Luke 5:1), or the Sea of Tiberias (John 6:1).

Hebrews, Israelites, Jews

These three terms are today generally used synonymously to refer to the Old Testament people of God. The origin of the word Hebrew is uncertain, but probably comes from the name Eber, a descendant of Abraham (Gen. 10:21; 11:16). Israel (meaning “he strives with God” or “God strives/prevails”) was the name God gave to Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, after he wrestled with God (Gen. 32:28). Therefore, the twelve tribes that descended from him became known as the children of Israel, or the Israelites. The term Jew comes from one of these twelve tribes, Judah. The twelve tribes were united during the reigns of King Saul, King David, and his son Solomon but were then divided through civil war into two: the southern kingdom of Judah and the northern kingdom of Israel. After the Babylonian exile, it was primarily those from Judah who returned to the land of Israel, so that “Jews” came to be used of all Israelites from this point on. Even members of other tribes, such as Asher (Luke 2:36), Benjamin (Rom. 11:1; Phil. 3:5) and Levi (Luke 10:32; John 1:19), could now be identified as “Jews.”

Judeans and Galileans

In Jesus’ day, the Jews of Palestine lived primarily in Judea in the south and Galilee in the north, with Samaria and the Samaritans between the two. The largest cities in Galilee were Tiberias, on the southwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee, and Sepphoris, in central Galilee near Nazareth. The largest city of Judea was Jerusalem. Caesarea Maritima on the coast, built by Herod the Great, was an important port and the Roman headquarters for Palestine.

Whether the Jews of Galilee were native Israelites or Judean Jews who had recolonized the north after the Babylonian exile or during the Hasmonean period (1 Macc. 4:15; 5:20–21) is debated. The latter seems most likely. Many Jews, of course, lived outside of Palestine, throughout the Mediterranean region and to the east in Mesopotamia. The Jewish people outside of Israel are known as the Diaspora (= “dispersed” people).

We don’t have good information about population sizes. The Jewish philosopher Philo claimed there were one million Jews in Egypt in his day,13 though this number may be exaggerated. Blomberg suggests that perhaps seven hundred thousand Jews lived in Israel and three million throughout the Diaspora.14 The population of Jerusalem has been estimated between twenty thousand and fifty thousand in the city itself and perhaps a hundred thousand in the larger vicinity.15 At festivals the city’s population may have swelled to as much as a quarter million.

Jesus had connections to both Judea and Galilee. Though born in Bethlehem in Judea, he was raised in Nazareth, a village in Galilee, and his public ministry began in the towns and villages around the Sea of Galilee.

Samaria and Samaritans

The term Samaria can refer to the city that served as the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel or the whole region located west of the Jordan River between Judea and Galilee. The Samaritans considered themselves to be the true Israelites, who had maintained their national identity and religion despite the Assyrian and Babylonian conquests. To the Jews, however, they were a half-breed race, a mix of Assyrian colonists and Israelites, who practiced a heretical version of Judaism (2 Kings 17:24–41).

Animosity between the Jews and the Samaritans began in the Old Testament period when the Jews who had returned from Babylonian exile refused to allow the Samaritans to join in rebuilding the temple, and the Samaritans subsequently opposed the project (Ezra 4). Later, during the Hasmonean period, John Hyrcanus destroyed the city of Samaria (Sebaste) and the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim.16 This enmity between Jews and Samaritans is the background to passages like Jesus’ encounter with a Samaritan woman (John 4:9), the parable of the good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), and the desire by James and John to call down fire from heaven against a Samaritan village (Luke 9:52–55). The Samaritans considered only the first five books of Moses, the Torah, to be authoritative and had their own version of the Scriptures, known as the Samaritan Pentateuch.

Phoenicia

Phoenicia was the region north of Israel on the Mediterranean coast (modern Lebanon). Its two most important cities were Tyre and Sidon, major ports for trade and commerce. Jesus spent some time in this region, and there exorcised a demon from the daughter of a Syrophoenician woman (Mark 7:24–31; Matt. 15:21–28).

Decapolis

The Decapolis (meaning “ten cities”) was a federation of ten city-states located to the east, south, and north of the Sea of Galilee. The number of cities varied over time. Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79)17 identifies the original ten as Scythopolis (Beth Shean), Hippos, Gadara, Pella, Philadelphia (Amman), Gerasa (Jerash), Capitolias (Dion), Kanatha, Damascus, and Raphana. Of these, Damascus is much farther north than the others; only Scythopolis (Beth Shean) is west of the Jordan.

The cities were founded on the Greek model in the years following the conquests of Alexander the Great (336–323 BC) and during the Seleucid period. The population was a mix of Greek colonists and local Semitic cultures. Though the federation was formed earlier to promote defense and trade, the term Decapolis seems to have been first applied to the federation following the conquest of Syria and Judea by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BC. In Jesus’ day the population was primarily Gentile.

Jesus spent time in the Decapolis during his Galilean ministry. It was there that he exorcised the Gerasene (or Gadarene) demoniac (Mark 5:20) and later healed a deaf man (Mark 7:33). The second feeding miracle, the feeding of the four thousand, likely took place in the Decapolis (Mark 8:1–9).

Syria

Syria refers to the region north of Israel incorporating the northeastern Levant and eastern Mesopotamia. In the Old Testament period, it was known as Aram. Following the conquest of Alexander the Great, Coele-Syria became a province of the Seleucid Empire; and in 64 BC, with the conquests of the Roman general Pompey, it became a province of the Roman Republic. With the destruction of the Jewish state after the second Jewish (Bar Kokhba) revolt, Judea was integrated into the province, which became known as Syria Palaestina.

Perea

Perea refers to the region on the eastern shore at the Jordan River south and west of the Decapolis. During Jesus’ day, it was part of the region governed by Herod Antipas.

Nabatea

The Nabatean kingdom occupied the region southeast of Perea and south of Decapolis. The kingdom was independent throughout the New Testament period until its conquest by Rome in AD 106. During Jesus’ day, it was ruled by King Aretas IV (2 Cor. 11:32). Paul was probably referring to Nabatea when he spoke of spending time in “Arabia” (Gal. 1:17).

Idumea

Idumea is Latin for Edom, the land of the Edomites south of Israel. Edom is another name for Esau, the brother of Jacob. Though related to the Israelites, the Edomites had a history of conflict with them, beginning with their opposition following Israel’s exodus from Egypt (Num. 20:14–21). During the Hasmonean period, Israel dominated Edom, and John Hyrcanus had forcibly converted many Edomites/Idumeans. The most famous Idumean in biblical history was Herod the Great, son of Antipater.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. The Second Temple (or intertestamental) period of Israel’s history—running from approximately the fifth century BC to the end of the first century AD—provides the historical background for Jesus and the Gospels.

2. The conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC resulted in the spread of Greek language and culture (Hellenization) throughout the Mediterranean region.

3. The Egyptian dynasty of the Ptolemies dominated Palestine for one hundred years following the division of Alexander’s empire. The Jews fared well under the Ptolemies. The Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek during this period, a version known as the Septuagint (LXX).

4. Antiochus IV Epiphanes, ruler of the Syrian dynasty of the Seleucids, persecuted the Jews and tried to force Hellenization on them.

5. Led by Judas Maccabeus (“The Hammer”) and his brothers, the Maccabees defeated the Syrians and gained independence for the Jews. Hanukkah is the celebration of this victory.

6. The Hasmonean (Maccabean) dynasty ruled in Israel for the next seventy years, until the Roman conquest in 63 BC.

7. Caesar Augustus (Octavian) was the emperor at Jesus’ birth. Tiberius Caesar was the emperor during his public ministry.

8. The Romans made Herod the Great, an Idumean by ancestry, king of the Jews. Herod was a cruel but effective ruler and a great builder. He restored and expanded the Jerusalem temple into one of the great buildings of the ancient world. Herod died shortly after Jesus’ birth.

9. When Herod’s son Archelaus ruled Judea poorly, the emperor appointed Roman governors to succeed him. One of these governors was Pontius Pilate, who ordered Jesus’ crucifixion.

10. Herod Antipas, another son of Herod the Great, ruled Galilee and Perea. Antipas executed John the Baptist and participated in Jesus’ trial.

11. After years of unrest, the Jews revolted in AD 66. The Romans crushed the rebellion and in AD 70 destroyed Jerusalem and the temple.

12. Sixty-two years later, the Jews rebelled again under Simon bar Koseba. The so-called Bar Kokhba Revolt was again aggressively put down by the Romans, this time ending Israel’s existence as a political state.

KEY TERMS

abomination of desolation Antiochus IV “Epiphanes” Caesar Augustus (Octavian)

Alexander the Great Bar Kokhba Revolt of AD 132–35 Diaspora

Hanukkah Jewish Revolt of AD 66–73 prefect, procurator

Hasmonean dynasty Johanan ben Zakkai, Jamnia proconsul, legate

Hellenists and Hasidim Judas Maccabeus Ptolemies

Hellenization Koine Greek Second Temple period

Herod Antipas Maccabees Seleucids

Herod the Great Pax Romana Septuagint (LXX)

Idumean Pontius Pilate

DISCUSSION AND STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Summarize briefly the main events of the history of Israel from the close of the Old Testament to the destruction of the Jewish state in AD 135.

2. What is Hellenization? How did the conquests of Alexander the Great result in widespread Hellenization?

3. Where was the Ptolemaic Empire centered? How did the Jews fare under the Ptolemies?

4. What great Bible translation was produced during the period of the Ptolemies?

5. Where was the Seleucid Empire centered? What actions did Antiochus IV Epiphanes take against the Jews?

6. Who sparked the Maccabean Revolt? Who led it in the years that followed?

7. What Jewish feast celebrates the cleansing of the temple by the Maccabees?

8. Who were the Hasmoneans? Who were the main Hasmonean rulers?

9. From where did the Pharisees and Essenes emerge? The Sadducees?

10. Who was Antipater? Who was Herod the Great? What was the nature and significance of his rule?

11. Identify the main rulers of the Herodian dynasty who followed Herod the Great.

12. What Roman emperor ruled at the time of Jesus’ birth? During his public ministry? What prefect (governor) ruled over Judea during Jesus’ public ministry?

13. How did the Pax Romana help the spread of Christianity?

14. Why did Roman governors rule Judea during the period of Jesus’ ministry and the early church? What governors appear in the New Testament?

15. How did the Jewish Revolt of AD 66–73 change the face of Judaism? What effect did it have on Christianity?

16. Who was Johanan ben Zakkai? What happened at Jamnia?

17. Who was Josephus? What are the basic facts about his life?

Digging Deeper

Arnold, Clinton E., gen. ed. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.

Barnett, Paul, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity. A History of New Testament Times. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2002.

Barrett, C. K. The New Testament Background: Writings from Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire That Illuminate Christian Origins. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1995.

Bruce, F. F. New Testament History. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1969.

Cohen, S. J. D. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. 3rd ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2014.

Davies, W. D., and L. Finkelstein, eds. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Evans, Craig A., and Stanley E. Porter, eds. Dictionary of New Testament Background: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2000.

Ferguson, E. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003.

Green, Joel B., and Lee Martin McDonald, eds. The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2013.

Hengel, Martin. Judaism and Hellenism: Studies in Their Encounter in Palestine during the Early Hellenistic Period. Translated by J. Bowden. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974.

Jeffers, James S. The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1999.

Millar, F. The Roman Near East 31 BC–AD 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.

Moore, G. F. Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of the Tannaim. 3 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927–30; 1966–67.

Reicke, Bo. The New Testament Era: The World of the Bible from 500 BC to AD 100. Translated by David E. Green. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968.

Roetzel, Calvin J. The World That Shaped the New Testament. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002.

Schürer, E. The History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Translated, revised, and edited by G. Vermes, F. Millar, M. Goodman, and M. Black. 3 vols. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1973–87.

Notes

1. See Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism: Studies in Their Encounter in Palestine during the Early Hellenistic Period, trans. J. Bowden, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974).

2. Polybius, Histories 26.1–14.

3. Named after Hasmon, an ancestor of Mattathias.

4. Josephus, Ant. 13.9.1 §§254–58; 13.10.2–3 §§275–81; J.W. 1.2.6–7 §§63–64.

5. Macrobius, Saturnalia 2.4.11.

6. Josephus, Ant. 17.6.5 §§17–81.

7. Josephus, Ant. 17.8.2 §§191–93.

8. Tacitus, Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola, 30 (author’s trans.).

9. Josephus, J.W. 2.9.3–4. §§169–77.

10. Josephus, J.W. 7.9.1–7.10.1 §§389–407.

11. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.5. Eusebius’s statements have been doubted by some scholars.

12. Mark 13:1–20; Matt. 23:37–39; 24:1–22; Luke 13:34–35; 19:43–44; 21:5–24.

13. Philo, To Flaccus 43, 55 §§6, 8.

14. Craig L. Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey, 2nd ed. (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2009), 61.

15. Compare the numbers and bibliographies of P. J. King, “Jerusalem,” ABD 3:753, with D. Tarler, “David, City of,” ABD 2:65.

16. Josephus, Ant. 13.9.1 §§254–58; 13.10.2–3 §§275–81; J.W. 1.2.6–7 §§63–64.

17. Pliny the Elder, Natural History 5.16.74.