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Factors that Influence International Fans’ Intention to Travel to the United States for Sport Tourism Chia-Chen Yu
Sports fans and participants have shown increasing interest in traveling overseas for sport
tourism. When sports tourists visit sports destinations, the tourists not only spend money
on events and games but also bring additional revenue to local businesses. The major
purpose of this study was to investigate factors that might influence international sports
fans’ intention to travel to the United States for sport tourism. A survey with 49
questions was distributed to 500 college students in Taiwan. The results of exploratory
factor analysis show that six factors (cost and ease of arranging travel plans, interest in
professional sports, different cultural experience, interest in travel, experience of
watching live sporting events, and the chance to see Asian players or famous US
players in the games) are the major factors that influence international fans’ intention
to travel to the United States for sport tourism. The results of this study will be helpful
for sport management professionals to understand international fans’ motivations and
expectations for sport tourism and further develop marketing strategies and allied
activities to appeal to international fans’ interest in overseas sports tourism.
Keywords: International Sport Tourism; International Fans; Taiwan; Asian Players;
Motivations
Introduction
A study, Tourism 2020 Vision, conducted by the World Tourism Organization (2001b)
forecasted that the number of international tourist arrivals to the Americas is expected
to reach 282.3 million in 2020. Among the development of international tourist arri-
vals, sport tourism is one of the major developments in the past few decades that has
continued growing (World Tourism Organization, 2001a). The combination of sport
and tourism has become a popular choice among sports fans and tourists as they can
Correspondence to: Chia-Chen Yu, Director of Sport Management Program, 210 Mitchell Hall, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI 54601, USA. Email: yu.chia@uwlax.edu
Journal of Sport & Tourism Vol. 15, No. 2, May 2010, pp. 111 – 137
ISSN 1477-5085 (print)/ISSN 1029-5399 (online) # 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14775085.2010.498249
participate in sporting events and enjoy other tourist activities. Not only do sports
tourists take advantage of sport tourism, but governments and cities also benefit
from sport tourism in terms of generating revenue for and awareness of the commu-
nity. For example, the 2007 London Grand Départ of the Tour de France brought £88
million (approximately US$129.77 million) into London’s economy – money spent by
spectators, teams, and race organizers in London during the race weekend (Sport
Business, 2008a). A study by Gibson et al. (2003) also indicated that football games
have increased city revenue, community spirit, and travelers’ awareness of the local
community.
In addition to attracting domestic visitors, sport tourism has also brought visitors
and international arrivals to sporting events and local communities (World Tourism
Organization, 2002). The 2007 Open Golf Championship at Angus in Scotland is an
example where the event is a tourist draw – only 4% of spectators were local residents,
with the remainder traveling from other areas in Scotland (51%), the rest of the United
Kingdom (30%), and overseas (15%) (Sport Business, 2008b).
Among various sporting events, the Olympic Games and professional sports events
are the ones that draw international sport fans’ attention and interest. In particular,
professional sports teams and leagues have been aggressively expanding their
markets overseas, such as expanding their team recognition and brands through the
sale of broadcast rights, team merchandise, and other product extensions overseas
(Fay, 2003). For example, the National Basketball Association (NBA) views China as
the league’s fastest-growing market. As many as seven NBA games are shown each
week in China, and the league estimates 30% of the traffic on the NBA website
comes from Chinese fans (Feuerherd, 2007). Teams’ and leagues’ recruitment of
international players further indicates teams’ interest in the international market.
When the Los Angeles Galaxy signed David Beckham, a global sports icon, in 2007,
the Galaxy hoped Beckham would bring an unprecedented fan base to and interest
in the Galaxy and US soccer and further attract international soccer fans (Peters,
2007). In addition, when Yi Jianlian1 joined the Milwaukee Bucks in 2007, he was
considered a link between the Bucks, the Milwaukee business community, and the
vast economic promise of China and its millions of basketball fans where Yi has pro-
vided great exposure to Milwaukee (Walker, 2008). Daisuke Matsuzaka, a professional
baseball player from Japan, was recruited to the United States to play for the Boston
Red Sox and is expected to help the Red Sox in Major League Baseball (MLB) to
reach Japanese baseball fans, making inroads into a market dominated by Ichiro
Suzuki’s Seattle Mariners and Hideki Matsui’s New York Yankees (Bialik & Fry,
2006). The Los Angeles Lakers’ recent signing of Chinese guard Sue Yue in August
2008 has added to the number of international players in the NBA (Xinhua News
Agency, 2008). NBA international players such as Yao Ming, Steve Nash, Tony
Parker, Manu Ginobili, Pau Gasol, and Dirk Nowitzki helped the NBA become
popular worldwide (Spears, 2008).
Because of professional sports leagues and teams’ effort to expand their fan base and
market overseas, international sports fans have been exposed to additional news and
discussions about US professional sports. In addition to following favorite teams
112 C.-C. Yu
and players via media, another method that has become popular among international
fans is watching sport games or visiting sports facilities as an agenda in an overseas
travel itinerary.
Among international sports fans, Taiwanese fans have shown strong interest in the
NBA and MLB (Chan, 2008) as several elite professional players (e.g., Yao Ming,
Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant, Spencer Haywood, Scottie Pippen, Donyell Marshall)
in the United States have visited Taiwan to meet sports fans. In addition, numerous
baseball players from Taiwan such as Hong-Chih Kuo, Chin-Hui Tsao, Chin-Lung
Hu, Chien-Ming Wang, and Yung-Chi Chen are current MLB players. In addition
to following US professional sports, Taiwanese residents have demonstrated a continu-
ing interest in visiting the United States; the number of Taiwanese traveling to the
United States increased from 532,180 in 2002 to 587,872 in 2007 (Taiwan Tourism
Bureau, 2008a). The United States remains the most popular country that Taiwanese
visit, in addition to countries in Asia; in comparison, the second and third most-
visited countries in Europe, Africa, and Oceania are Canada (87,161) and the Nether-
lands (85,352). Lin’s (2006) study showed that Taiwanese sports fans have an especially
high interest in traveling overseas for sporting events. Thus, in the early 2000, travel
agents in Taiwan started to incorporate sport tourism in itineraries or packages for
overseas travel (Tang, 2003).
Sport teams not only benefit from the attendance of international sports fans, but
local businesses or governments also generate revenues from international sport
tourists’ spending on other activities, such as visiting tourist destinations and
shopping. Although professional sports teams and leagues may not consider inter-
national sport tourists core consumers and target markets, the market potential of
international fans from overseas exists as major sport companies (e.g., Nike and
Adidas) and sport leagues and teams have been reaching out to the global market
for sports broadcasts and product sales. International fans’ outbound sports
tourism experience would help to establish or strengthen fans’ association with
teams and players, who hope that international fans continue their interest in US
sports when the tourists return to their home countries. In addition, as the sports
industry has become a global business, sport management professionals have oppor-
tunities to work with international sports fans. As a result, the major purpose of this
study was to investigate factors that might influence international sports fans’ inten-
tion to travel to the United States for sport tourism. The results of this study will be
helpful for sport management professionals to understand international fans’ motiv-
ations and preferences for sport tourism in planning marketing strategies and associ-
ated tourist activities.
Literature Review: Theories and Studies
International sports fans’ intention to travel overseas for sporting events can be attrib-
uted to various factors, such as fan and attendance motivation, travel intention, fans’
association with players and teams, and interest in US sports. Yet barriers might also
restrain international fans’ interest in outbound sport spectating.
Journal of Sport & Tourism 113
Fan and Attendance Motivation
Just as with sports fans in the United States, international sports fans’ motivation in
sports spectating is to satisfy certain interests and desires. Sports fans participate in
sports because they want to enjoy the excitement, entertainment, and competition
inherent in sports that help fans escape stress (Branscombe & Wann, 1994; Gantz &
Wenner, 1995; Lever & Wheeler, 1984; Sloan, 1989; Zillmann et al., 1989). In addition,
fans are motivated by associating with the success of teams and players such that fans
share the teams’ achievements (Branscombe & Wann, 1994; Sloan, 1989). The results
of studies by Wann (1995) and Wann et al. (1999) on the Sport Fan Motivation Scale
confirmed the factors – eustress, self-esteem, escape, entertainment, economic, aes-
thetic, group affiliation, and family – to be influential motivations. Funk et al.
(2002) further identified that the following factors have influenced fan motivation:
role models, excitement, drama, wholesome environment, aesthetics, entertainment
value, interest in the sport, interest in team, national pride, and vicarious achievement.
Similar to fan motivation, research has found factors range from social dimensions to
entertainment aspects that have influenced attendance motivation. The Motivation
Scale for Sport Consumption for fans’ motives of watching or attending sport events
was later validated by Trail & James (2001) as some of the motives included vicarious
achievement, acquisition of knowledge, aesthetics, social interaction, drama, and
escape. Neale & Funk (2006) used the Sport Interest Inventory to measure the
motives of spectators attending an Australian Football League game and the results
show that five factors – vicarious achievement, player interest, entertainment value,
drama, and socialization – are important motives for spectators attending games.
Additional attendance behavior is also associated with the sports (e.g., rivalries), the
value of the ticket price and overall cost of attendance, added entertainment such as pro-
motions/giveaways and in-game entertainment, and connection with family or commu- nity (Bernthal & Graham, 2003). In addition, the new development and renovation of
sports ballparks and stadiums, stadium design, and services have also motivated specta-
tors’ attendance at games, in particular professional sports (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995).
Fans’ Association with Players and Teams
Sport fandom not only attracts fans following sports but also induces fans to travel
miles domestically or outbound to watch the teams and players that the fans
support. In particular, international sports fans’ interest in US sports has been escalat-
ing due to increasing numbers of international players playing in professional US
leagues. It is now common to see players from South America and Asia play in
Major and Minor League Baseball and Asian players are beginning to play in the
NBA. Although international players might not be the stars on the teams, their
playing in professional sports major leagues is an honor for the fans from the
players’ native countries. International sports fans’ support of their native players
may be attributed to star power. Fans feel familiarity, similarity, and likeability
toward players (the source-attractiveness model, McGuire, 1985; Shank, 2005) and
114 C.-C. Yu
trustworthiness and expertness (the source credibility model, Charbonneau &
Garland, 2006; Ohanian, 1990). International players’ positive characteristics and
images attract the attention of media and fans in the players’ native countries, and,
further, fans transfer their appreciation of international players to the sports,
leagues, or products and brands the players endorse (the meaning transfer model,
McCracken, 1989). According to the results of Bilyeu & Wann’s (2002) study of the
differences between African American and European American fan motivation,
representation (e.g., people of the same background) and similarity (e.g., people
that have things in common with) are also critical for fan motivation. In addition,
previous studies have shown that national pride plays an important role in inducing
fans’ interest, particularly Asian sports fans (e.g., Funk et al., 2002; Kim et al., 2009).
Chien-Ming Wang, a native of Taiwan and a former pitcher for the Yankees, is con-
sidered a celebrity in Taiwan. Because of Wang’s popularity, many Taiwanese tune in to
Yankees’ games, as Wang’s starts are broadcast live, and fans can follow on computers
or TV (Caldera, 2008). Through the fans’ association with their favorite players, fans in
Taiwan are becoming more interested in US professional sports because Taiwanese fans
want to see players from their native country playing in Major League games (Chan, 2008).
Lin (2006) investigated the relationship of Taiwanese baseball sports fans’ motiv-
ation, involvement, and team identification, and their intentions to attend foreign
games. The results showed that if fans have a strong affiliation for the teams they
support, the fans’ tendency to travel overseas is higher. Tang (2003) also concluded
that the major motivation factors for Taiwanese sports spectators to travel outbound
for sport tourism are entertainment, relaxation, the experience of cultural differences
and social interaction (socialization), travel choice and event/game attractiveness, favorite players or teams, self-esteem/self-fulfillment, and the chance to go abroad.
General travel interest. In addition to fan and attendance motivation, general travel
interest might also trigger fans’ intention to travel overseas for sports tourism. In
tourism and leisure studies, scholars have used different approaches to analyze tour-
ists’ motivation. Among various theories, the theory of push and pull factors has
been commonly used. For example, Krippendorf (1987) pointed out that push
factors induce individuals to travel because they want to get away from issues in
their daily lives and travel would help them fulfill the need for escape, recuperation,
social integration, self-determination, self-realization, and broadening of the mind.
In addition, tourists are motivated to travel by push factors as they want to fulfill
physiological (e.g., climate and food) and psychological (social interaction and eus-
tress) needs (Dann, 1977). On the other hand, the pull factors – individuals’ perceived
image of destination – are critical and attract them to travel (Crompton, 1979; Dann,
1977; Iso-Ahola, 1982; Uysal & Jurowski, 1993).
Push and Pull Factors
The push and pull factors for sport travelers’ motivation are also found in studies of
sport tourism. From the push factors, participating in sport tourism is a good way for
Journal of Sport & Tourism 115
fans and participants to experience different cultures as sport, and tourism has a
similar objective, which is to help people understand different cultures and lifestyles
(World Tourism Organization, 2002). As Funk et al. (2007) revealed, the factors of
escape for travel benefits, social interaction, prestige, relaxation, culture experience,
and cultural learning in different countries and knowledge exploration are critical
for participants’ motivation in sport tourism.
On the other hand, pull factors refer to the attractiveness of the destination and tan-
gible destination features such as natural attractions, historical and cultural resources,
architecture, hotel, transportations, special events, and entertainment opportunities
(Kim & Lee, 2002; Kozak, 2002; Uysal & Hagan, 1993). The pull factors also show
that the destination image of sporting tourism is another critical factor for sports tour-
ists (e.g., Funk et al., 2007; Gibson et al., 2008). Kaplanidou & Vogt (2007) investigated
active sport tourists’ purposes for participating in a bicycling tour, and the results of
the study showed that destination image and past experience with the destination sig-
nificantly influenced participants’ intentions to revisit the destination for sport
tourism activities. Thus, it is important to develop an attractive sport destination
for successful sport tourism. Turco et al. (2002) suggested several significant elements
to plan attractive sport tourist destinations, which should include hospitality and
other characteristics such as national tourism resources (e.g., terrain, climate,
geology), human-made tourism resources (e.g., historical/cultural hospitality facili- ties), human tourism resources (hosting capabilities), and communication location
(e.g., market access, exploitable factor in tourism potential).
Other Factors influencing Travelers’ Intention
In addition to push and pull factors, a number of studies have posited that other
factors also influence travelers’ intention, i.e., culture, architecture, hotels, transport,
entertainment, and cost (Kozak, 2002; Laws, 1995; Sirakaya et al., 1996). The econo-
metric models in tourism management confirm that tourists’ intention to travel is
associated with variables such as prices of local tourist products, exchange rates,
and transportation costs (Johnson & Ashworth, 1990; Papatheodorou, 2001; Witt &
Martin, 1987).
Different Motivation Factors according to Gender and Length of Individuals’ Trips
Although individuals have similar motivations for sports attendance and tourism,
research has shown that different motivations influence males and females to spectate
and travel overseas. Previous studies have shown that tourists’ gender influences
tourism motives as men tend to be motivated to participate in physical outdoor activi-
ties/adventure and have fun while women are motivated to relax (e.g., Freysinger, 1995; Mattila et al., 2001). Meng and Uysal’s (2008) study regarding gender differences
in the perceived importance of motivation in terms of Nature Tourism Destination has
similar results: men put more emphasis on ‘activities and fun,’ and women consider
the ‘relaxation experience’ the more important factor. The study also revealed that
116 C.-C. Yu
female respondents were more concerned about the security at the destination, being
respected by others, and feeling welcome at the destination, whereas male respondents
considered fun and enjoyment in travel value.
Spectators’ gender differences also influence fans’ attendance motivation. Kim et al.
(2008) examined spectator motives regarding mixed martial arts at a local amateur
event and revealed that there were gender differences in motives. Female fans con-
sidered drama and aesthetics to be important motivations while males indicated
that interest in the sport, economics, and violence were significantly more important.
A study by Hall & O’Mahony (2006) suggested that entertainment, back room (e.g.,
parking, ease of getting a seat, and stadium accessibility), and social factors are
more influential for women than for men.
In addition to different motivations between genders, the length of individuals’ trips
has also influenced their planning of tourist activities and preferred destinations.
Fodness & Murray’s (1999) study of tourist information search behavior shows that
tourists’ length of stay was significantly associated with information searches, as
long-haul tourists are involved in more extensive information search. Morrison
et al.’s (1997) study of destination choices of Taiwanese outbound travelers showed
that travelers’ choice of destinations outside the Asia-Pacific region was positively
related to the length of the trip. The results of Vogt & Stewart’s (1998) study of trip plan-
ners’ information usage confirmed that travelers who stayed at their destinations for a
longer time (i.e., 4 days or longer) may have spread out activities and gone sightseeing.
Constraints of Fans’ Overseas Tourism
Although international fans have shown interest in sport tourism, some factors might
restrain their intention in outbound travel for sport tourism. As pointed out by Huang
et al. (1996), despite the development of Taiwanese traveling overseas, some obstacles
have impeded progress of outbound Taiwanese tourism. Getting visas and men’s com-
pulsory military service are the two common restraints. For diplomatic reasons, since
the withdrawal from the United Nations in 1971, Taiwanese travelers are required to
submit foreign visa applications, which can be time-consuming and costly. In
addition, fans’ concerns might include long travel distances (especially traveling
across continents), language barriers (Chen & Hsu, 2000), safety of destinations
(Kim et al., 2005; McKercher & Hui, 2003; Tsai, 2006), unfamiliarity with the desti-
nations (Wu, 1997), and travel cost (Chen & Hsu, 2000; Kim et al., 2005). Further-
more, the cost of travel and economic reasons are critical factors for international
sports fans to travel outbound. Lin’s (2006) study of Taiwanese fans’ intention to
travel overseas also showed that fans’ income is a significant effect on their motivation
and intention to attend foreign sport games. In addition, according to the survey by
the Taiwan Tourism Bureau (2008b) about Taiwanese residents’ behavior in travel
in 2006, respondents indicated that the price of the trip is a major consideration
when they plan for overseas travel.
With the development of sport tourism and the popularity of sports among inter-
national fans, it is important to understand factors that influence international sports
Journal of Sport & Tourism 117
fans’ intention to travel overseas for sport tourism. According to the purposes of study
and literature reviews, research questions were developed as follows. (a) What are the
major factors that might influence international sports fans’ intention to travel to the
United States for sporting event tourism? (b) Are there any differences regarding the
importance of major factors among international sports fans’ gender, interest in US
professional sports, and number of days that they are willing to spend on sport
tourism?
Methodology
Instrument
A questionnaire was developed to investigate factors that might influence international
sports fans’ intention to travel to the United States for sport tourism. The context of
the questionnaire presented to respondents was a trip to the US in which the respon-
dents could attend professional sport games. The questionnaire consisted of two parts
with 49 questions. The first part included four questions, which collected information
about respondents’ gender, interest in US professional sports, their future plan to
travel to the United States, and number of days that they are willing to spend for
sport tourism on a 14-day trip. The second part of the survey with 45 items asked
respondents the importance of each variable that might influence their intention to
travel to the United States for sport tourism. Each question in Part Two of the
survey was assessed on a five-point Likert scale, where 5 represented very high and
1 represented very low.
Questions were developed from a review of the literature and previous studies to
represent four subcategories: sports fan and attendance motivation, fans’ association
with players and teams, general travel interest, and constraints of fans’ overseas
tourism. Fourteen questions to evaluate fan and attendance motivation were devel-
oped from studies of sport fan motivation (Trail & James; 2001; Wann, 1995; Wann
et al., 1999). The second subcategory’s 14 questions, which investigated fans’ motiv-
ations by associating with players and teams, were generated from the source-attrac-
tiveness model (Shank, 2005), the meaning transfer model (McCracken, 1989), and
previous studies (e.g., Funk et al., 2002; Kim et al., 2009) regarding fans’ connection
with players and teams. Items from studies by Iso-Ahola (1982), Uysal & Jurowski
(1993), and Chen & Hsu (2000) were derived to reveal if respondents’ travel interest
(nine questions) and constraints on overseas tourism (eight questions) would influ-
ence their outbound sports tourism. The second part of the 45-item survey were
listed in random order regardless of the subcategory.
Ticket sales managers and executives from a selected professional team in the US
Midwest were asked to offer suggestions for the questionnaire; several questions
(e.g., ‘Possibility of a post-game meet and greet with a professional athlete’ and
‘Chance to be on the court after the game and interact: take photos, shoot free
throws’) were added according their feedback. In addition, numerous questions
were developed based on information from government reports. For example,
118 C.-C. Yu
according to the Taiwan Tourism Bureau (2008b), Taiwanese in outbound travel
usually stay 10.40 nights. As a result, a hypothesis of a 14-day trip (including approxi-
mately 14 – 20 hours of traveling time one way) was estimated for a question regarding
the length of the entire trip from Taiwan to the United States.
The questionnaire was originally developed in English because the items and ques-
tions in the instrument were primarily generated from studies in, and literature review
of, Western countries, as there are established theories and studies regarding fan and
attendance motivation, sport tourism, and tourism motivations. The researcher then
translated the English questionnaire into Chinese. To ensure the validity of the trans-
lation of the research instrument between the English and Chinese versions, two
selected college professors in the United States and Taiwan who specialize in sport
management and are proficient in both languages were asked to critique the trans-
lation of the questionnaire. Then a second group of experts (n ¼ 2) translated the
modified Chinese questionnaire into English. Finally, a graduate sport administration
student who is a native English speaker was asked to evaluate the consistency and accu-
racy between the original and revised English questionnaires. The researcher then
modified words and finalized the Chinese questionnaire to make it more understand-
able for Taiwanese respondents and accurate to the original questionnaire according to
the selected experts’ suggestions. The Cronbach alpha coefficients for each subcategory
(fan and attendance motivation, fans’ association with players and teams, general
travel interest, and constraints on overseas tourism) are 0.86, 0.86, 0.82, and 0.73,
respectively.
Participants
Respondents for this study were college students in various majors and years of study
who were enrolled during the 2008 academic year at five colleges and universities in
Taiwan. College students were chosen for this study because of the increasing interest
in professional sports and popularity of overseas travel among college students. Several
studies indicated that the majority (approximately more than 50%) of on-site specta-
tors for professional sporting events and loyal fans are college students who have
shown strong interest in professional sports (e.g., Chen, 2005; Chen et al., 2006; Lai,
2005; Lin, 2003). In addition to fans of professional sports, approximately 930,000
college students traveled outbound in 2001 (Taiwan Tourism Bureau, 2002). The
popularity of traveling overseas among college students might be attributed to stu-
dents’ escalating interest in learning different languages and cultural environments,
and their parents’ financial support for the trip (Chen, 2003). Thus, college students
are the appropriate group of participants for this study. The researcher asked a faculty
member from each university to randomly select two to three of his or her classes,
approximately a total of 100 students from each university, to participate in this
survey. The selected faculty members distributed the questionnaires during their
classes, including general physical activity and graduate-level sport administration
classes. Participants used approximately 20 – 25 minutes to complete the survey;
then the faculty collected the questionnaires. Excluding incomplete questionnaires
Journal of Sport & Tourism 119
with no answers to some questions, a total of 475 useful questionnaires were collected
from 500 questionnaires; the return rate for this study is 95%.
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis was used to analyze respondents’ background information. Means
and standard deviations were calculated to determine the importance of each variable.
An independent t-test on factors was conducted to see if there was a difference between
male and female students regarding the variables that might influence their intentions
regarding international sport tourism. Exploratory factor analysis was used to deter-
mine the major factors that might influence international sports fans’ intention to
travel to the United States for sporting event tourism. Factor loadings of 0.3 or
greater were included to determine the degree to which a variable was related to the
resulting factor. Six factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were retained and were
identified with a cumulative variance of 54.34%. After varimax rotation, the researcher
renamed these six major factors based on the characteristics of the underlying variables
loading to each major factor. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was then
applied to reveal differences in the importance of these six major factors among
respondents depending on the degree of their interest and involvement in US pro-
fessional sports and plans for future travel to the United States. The researcher
further used the Scheffe post-hoc test to determine significant differences among
groups and cross-tabulation calculation to reveal greater insight into the frequency
distribution of the respondents’ answers.
Findings
Respondents’ Involvement and Interest in US Professional Sports
As demonstrated in Table 1, approximately 46% of the respondents were male and 54%
were female. About 45.5% of respondents watch, read, or discuss US professional sports
at least once a week. Around 23% of the respondents plan to travel to the United States
within 1 to 3 years. However, 38.3% of the respondents do not plan to visit the United
States within the next 6 years. About 58.9% of the respondents are willing to spend 1 – 2
whole days for sport tourism during a 14-day trip. The next favorite length of trip spent
on sport tourism is 3 – 4 days (25.7%). Very few respondents (3.0%) in this study are
interested in spending 9 – 12 whole days for sport tourism on a 14-day trip.
Factors that Influence International Sports Fans’ Intention to Travel to the United States
for Sporting Event Tourism
Table 2 shows the degree of importance for all the 45 variables that respondents con-
sidered regarding sport tourism in the United States. Respondents perceived that ‘Price
for the entire trip from Taiwan to the United States’ (M ¼ 4.23, SD ¼ 0.79) and the
factors ‘Escape for travel benefits’ (M ¼ 4.21, SD ¼ 0.80), ‘Overall itinerary and
120 C.-C. Yu
arrangement of trip’ (M ¼ 4.18, SD ¼ 0.74), ‘Acceptable days that work with the tra-
veler’s schedule’ (M ¼ 4.13, SD ¼ 0.76), ‘Chance to see favorite player(s), regardless
of their nationality’ (M ¼ 4.12, SD ¼ 0.89), ‘Trip companions’ (M ¼ 4.11, SD ¼
0.87), and ‘Chance to see player(s) from Taiwan in the games’ (M ¼ 4.07, SD ¼
0.97) are important influences on respondents’ intention to travel to the United
States for sporting events. Respondents evaluated that the ‘Chance to see player(s)
from China in the games’ (M ¼ 2.57, SD ¼ 1.05) and ‘Chance to see player(s) from
Asia in the games’ (M ¼ 3.07, SD ¼ 0.90) were not that critical. The variable ‘Obli-
gation of military service in Taiwan’ (M ¼ 2.80, SD ¼ 1.38) was evaluated by male
students only; however, they did not consider it an important variable.
Principal components analysis was performed to retain six factors and apply the
varimax rotation (Mertler & Vannatta, 2005). After rotation, the first factor accounted
for 13.2% and the second for 11.9%, the third for 8.7%, the fourth for 7.4%, the fifth
for 7.3%, and the sixth for 5.8%, with a total of a cumulative percentage of variance
explained of 54.338. As shown in Table 3a and b, six major factors were identified
and renamed based on the characteristics of the underlying variables loading to
each major factor. Eleven variables loaded to Factor I, ‘Price and overall ease of arran-
ging travel plans,’ nine variables to Factor II, ‘Interest in professional sports,’ seven
Table 1 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents by Gender, Professional
Sports Involvement, and Future Trip Plan to the United States
Gender Gender Frequency Percent
Male 218 45.9 Female 257 54.1
Respondents’ professional sports involvement Frequency Percent
Watch/read/discuss US professional sports at least once a week 216 45.5 Watch/read/discuss US professional sports at least once a month 133 28.0 Watch/read/discuss US professional sports at least once a year 126 26.5
Future plan to travel to the United States Within number of years Frequency Percent 1 – 3 years 111 23.4 4 – 6 years 182 38.3 Impossible within 6 years 182 38.3
Number of days respondents are willing to spend for sport tourism during a 14-day trip Number of days Frequency Percent 1 – 2 days 280 58.9 3 – 4 days 122 25.7 5 – 6 days 31 6.5 7 – 8 days 28 5.9 9 – 10 days 5 1.1 11 – 12 days 9 1.9
Note: N ¼ 475.
Journal of Sport & Tourism 121
Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations of the Degree of Importance for Each Variable
Item Mean SD
1. Price for the entire trip from Taiwan to the United States 4.23 0.79 2. Escape for travel benefits 4.21 0.80 3. Overall itinerary and arrangement of trip 4.18 0.74 4. Acceptable days that work with the traveler’s schedule 4.13 0.76 5. Chance to see favorite player(s), regardless of their nationality 4.12 0.89 6. Trip companions 4.11 0.87 7. Chance to see player(s) from Taiwan in the games 4.07 0.97 8. Length of trip (number of days for trip) 4.07 0.79 9. Convenience of finding lodging near sport facilities 4.06 0.85 10. Experience culture differences (cultural learning in different countries) 4.06 0.83 11. Chance to visit other natural tourist destinations (e.g., state parks) near sport
facility 4.02 0.82
12. Price of tickets to the games 3.96 0.94 13. Chance to visit other human-made tourist resources (e.g., historical/cultural
hospitality facilities) near the sport facility 3.93 0.84
14. My interest in traveling to the United States 3.91 0.86 15. Language (e.g., understand the messages during the games) 3.90 0.95 16. Chance to visit well-recognized tourist destinations or city/state (e.g., Los
Angeles, California, and New York City, New York) that are popular with Taiwanese tourists
3.90 0.88
17. My interest in sports in general 3.87 0.95 18. Team’s performance and reputation 3.82 0.90 19. Exchange rate for US dollars and Taiwanese New Dollars 3.80 0.94 20. Seating location at the games 3.77 0.87 21. My interest in professional sports (e.g., baseball or basketball) 3.76 0.97 22. Ease of getting US visa or going through security (e.g., fingerprinting upon
arrival in the US) upon arrival in the United States 3.75 0.95
23. Competition and attractiveness of games 3.72 0.93 24. Experience different atmosphere of games and facilities in the United States 3.71 0.90 25. Chance to see US professional games in general 3.69 0.92 26. My overall favorable impression of destinations (state and city) of sporting
events and facilities 3.69 0.91
27. Distance and flight from Taiwan to the United States (approximately 1 day each way)
3.67 0.94
28. Possibility of a postgame meet-and-greet with a professional athlete, such as Yi Jianlian
3.64 1.00
29. Chance to have a tour of sport facilities 3.63 0.88 30. My interest in games/teams in general, regardless which teams play 3.61 0.92 31. Price of food in concessions 3.59 0.97 32. Chance to go shopping at department stores or outlet factories 3.58 0.90 33. Price of sports licensing products 3.56 0.99 34. Chance to be on the court after the game and interact: take photos, shoot free
throws, etc. 3.55 1.68
35. Concern about terrorism in the United States 3.52 1.05 36. Chance to gain knowledge about US professional sports 3.52 0.91 37. Number of facilities and games to watch 3.51 0.89
(Continued )
122 C.-C. Yu
variables to Factor III, ‘Experience different atmosphere and culture,’ six variables to
Factor IV, ‘Interest in travel,’ five variables to Factor V, ‘Experience in watching live
sporting events and viewing facilities,’ and five variables to Factor VI, ‘Chance to
see Asian players and famous US players and coaches in the games.’ The coefficient
values for these six major factors were 0.87, 0.90, 0.82, 0.81, 0.78, and 0.76, from
Factor I to Factor IV, respectively.
Differences Regarding the Importance of Major Factors among Fans’ Gender, Interest in
US Professional Sports, and Number of Days that Tourists are Willing to Spend on Sport
Tourism
The results of an independent t-test on factors show that there is no significant differ-
ence between male and female students’ responses. The MANOVA test on the six major
factors shows that there was no significant difference among respondents who plan to
travel to the United States within a certain number of years. However, Table 4 shows
that there are significant differences among respondents who have different pro-
fessional sports involvement and the number of days they are willing to spend on
sport tourism in the factors of ‘Interest in professional sports,’ ‘Experience different
atmosphere and culture,’ ‘Experience in watching live sporting events and viewing
facilities,’ and ‘Chance to see Asian players and famous US players and coaches in
the games.’ The Scheffe post-hoc test further showed a difference among groups.
The results of the cross-tabulation calculation (see Table 5) show that 60.2% of enthu-
siastic fans (read/watch/discuss US professional sports at least once per week) feel that their interest in professional sports is a critical (important to very important) factor
that influences their decision to participate in outbound travel for sport tourism,
whereas 33.08% of medium users (read/watch/discuss US professional sports at least once per month) and 16.67% of light users (read/watch/discuss US professional sports at least once per year) evaluated this factor as critical. As shown in Table 6,
approximately 48.1% of enthusiastic fans consider that experiencing different atmos-
phere and culture is critical while only 23% of light users think it is an important
Table 2 Continued
Item Mean SD
38. Recognition of the city and state for sport games and facilities (e.g., Houston in Texas and Milwaukee in Wisconsin)
3.45 0.90
39. Chance to visit tourist destinations or state/city (e.g., Milwaukee, Wisconsin) that are unfamiliar to Taiwanese tourists
3.37 0.88
40. Chance to purchase sports licensing products of professional sports teams 3.28 0.94 41. Chance to see famous US players in the games 3.23 0.96 42. Chance to see famous US coaches in the games 3.09 0.95 43. Chance to see player(s) from Asia (e.g., Japan and South Korea) in the games 3.07 0.90 44. Obligation of military service in Taiwan (male students only) 2.80 1.38 45. Chance to see player(s) from China in the games 2.57 1.05
Note: 5 ¼ Very high to 1 ¼ Very low.
Journal of Sport & Tourism 123
Table 3a Summary of Exploratory Factor Analysis Results for Important Factors of
International Sport Tourism
Item Factor
Loadings
Factor I. Price and ease of arranging travel plans (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.87) 1. Price of food in concessions 0.732 2. Ticket price to the games 0.720 3. Price of sports licensing products 0.682 4. Language (e.g., understand the messages during the games) 0.673 5. Convenience of getting US visa or going through security (e.g., fingerprinting
upon arrival in the US) upon arrival in the United States 0.643
6. Distance and flight from Taiwan to the United States (approximately 1 day each way)
0.624
7. Price for the entire trip from Taiwan to the United States 0.543 8. Convenience of finding lodging near sport facilities 0.521 9. Exchange rate for US dollars and Taiwanese New Dollars 0.518
10. Seating location at the games 0.459 11. Concern about terrorism in the United States 0.396
Factor II. Interest in professional sports (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.90) 1. My interest in professional sports (e.g., baseball or basketball) 0.822 2. My interest in sports in general 0.768 3. My interest in games/teams in general, regardless which teams play 0.757 4. Team’s performance and reputation 0.699 5. Competition and attractiveness of games 0.671 6. My overall favorable impression of destinations (state and city) of games and
facilities 0.646
7. Chance to see favorite player(s), regardless of their nationality 0.596 8. Chance to see US professional games in general 0.589 9. Chance to gain knowledge about US professional sports 0.517
Factor III. Experience different atmosphere and culture (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.82) 1. Chance to visit other human-made tourist resources (e.g., historical/cultural
hospitality facilities) near sport facility 0.736
2. Chance to visit other natural tourist destinations (e.g., state parks) near sport facility
0.700
3. Experience culture differences (cultural learning in different countries) 0.675 4. Experience different atmosphere of games and facilities in the United States 0.578 5. Chance to visit well-recognized tourist destinations or city/state (e.g., Los
Angeles, California, and New York City, New York) that are popular with Taiwanese tourists
0.554
6. Chance to visit tourist destinations or state/city (e.g., Milwaukee, Wisconsin) that are unfamiliar to Taiwanese tourists
0.521
7. Chance to go shopping in department stores or outlet factories 0.381
Factor IV. Interest in travel (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.81) 1. Escape for travel benefits 0.718 2. My interest in traveling to the United States 0.642 3. Acceptable days that work with the traveler’s schedule 0.521
(Continued )
124 C.-C. Yu
Table 3b Full Loadings Matrix of Exploratory Factor Analysis Results for Important
Factors of International Sport Tourism?
Factors
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Escape for travel benefits 0.032 0.083 0.075 0.718 0.041 20.019 2. My interest in traveling to the United States 20.026 0.196 0.086 0.642 0.129 20.047 3. My overall favorable impression toward
destinations (state and city) of sports games and facilities
2225 0.646 0.125 0.205 0.244 0.038
4. My interest in sports in general 0.044 0.768 0.019 0.140 0.048 20.055 5. My interest in professional sports (e.g.,
baseball or basketball) 20.029 0.822 0.025 0.071 0.131 20.023
6. My interest in sports games/teams in general, regardless which teams play
0.032 0.757 0.000 0.048 0.045 0.110
7. Competition and attractiveness of games 0.165 0.671 0.119 20.005 0.107 0.270 8. Team’s performance and reputation 0.185 0.699 0.151 0.068 0.114 0.149 9. Chance to see favorite player(s), regardless
of their nationality 0.139 0.596 0.132 0.246 0.128 0.244
10. Chance to see player(s) from Taiwan in the games
0.249 0.358 0.088 0.162 20.145 0.477
11. Chance to see player(s) from China in the games
0.149 20.043 0.108 20.162 0.126 0.654
(Continued )
Table 3a Continued
Item Factor
Loadings
4. Overall itinerary and arrangement of trip 0.516 5. Length of trip (number of days for trip) 0.510 6. Trip companions 0.497
Factor V. Experience in watching live sporting events and viewing facilities (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.78) 1. Possibility of a postgame meet-and-greet with a professional athlete, such as Yi
Jianlian 0.612
2. Number of facilities and games to watch 0.543 3. Chance to have a tour of sport facilities 0.521 4. Chance to purchase sports licensing products of professional sports teams 0.480 5. Recognition of the city and state for sport games and facilities (e.g., Houston in
Texas and Milwaukee in Wisconsin) 0.400
Factor VI. Chance to see Asian players or famous US players and coaches in the games (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.76)
1. Chance to see player(s) from Asia (e.g., Japan and South Korea) in the games 0.808 2. Chance to see famous US players in the games 0.658 3. Chance to see player(s) from China in the games 0.654 4. Chance to see famous US coaches in the games 0.576 5. Chance to see player(s) from Taiwan in the games 0.477
Journal of Sport & Tourism 125
Table 3b Continued
Factors
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6
12. Chance to see player(s) from Asia (e.g., Japan and South Korea) in the games
0.095 0.159 0.069 0.000 0.140 0.808
13. Chance to see famous US players in the games
20.038 0.379 0.135 0.049 0.247 0.658
14. Chance to see famous US coaches in the games
0.019 0.189 0.244 20.038 0.411 0.576
15. Chance to see US professional sports games in general
20.014 0.589 0.414 0.069 0.322 0.201
16. Chance to gain knowledge about US professional sports
0.032 0.517 0.450 20.058 0.398 0.105
17. Experience different atmosphere of games and facilities in the United States
0.036 0.402 0.578 20.034 0.291 0.099
18. Experience culture differences (cultural learning in different countries)
0.101 0.056 0.675 0.307 0.093 0.145
19. Chance to visit other natural tourist destinations (e.g., state parks) around sport facility
0.150 20.058 0.700 0.372 0.021 0.208
20. Chance to visit other human-made tourist resources (e.g., historical/cultural hospitality facilities) around sport facility
0.177 20.022 0.736 0.268 20.034 0.130
21. Chance to visit well recognized and popular tourist destinations or city/state (e.g., Los Angeles, California and New York City, New York) among Taiwanese tourists
0.186 0.450 0.554 0.121 0.196 0.059
22. Chance to visit unfamiliar tourist destinations or state/city (e.g., Milwaukee, Wisconsin) among Taiwanese tourists
0.211 0.292 0.521 20.092 0.325 0.091
23. Chance to purchase sports licensing products of professional sports teams
0.105 0.329 0.424 20.203 0.480 0.057
24. Chance to go shopping in department stores or outlet factories
0.353 0.092 0.381 0.034 0.154 20.039
25. Overall itinerary and arrangement of trip 0.374 0.130 0.396 0.516 20.169 20.009 26. Acceptable days for trip 0.439 0.130 0.308 0.521 20.169 20.043 27. Price for the entire trip from Taiwan to the
United States 0.543 0.165 0.214 0.404 20.170 20.053
28. Ticket price to the games 0.720 0.302 0.193 20.053 20.032 0.044 29. Price of sports licensing products 0.682 0.203 0.197 20.153 0.164 0.041 30. Price of food in concessions 0.732 0.110 0.096 20.047 0.149 0.022 31. Language (e.g., understand the messages
during the games) 0.673 0.088 0.079 0.126 0.221 0.101
32. Seating location of the games 0.459 0.252 0.062 0.193 0.423 0.014 33. Chance to have a tour of sport facilities 0.301 0.264 0.184 0.196 0.521 0.079 34. Possibility of a post-game meet and greet
with a professional athlete, such as Yi Jianlian
0.175 0.314 0.079 0.201 0.612 0.170
(Continued )
126 C.-C. Yu
factor. A total of 37.9% of enthusiastic fans feel it is important to experience watching
live sporting events and viewing sports facilities in Factor V (see Table 7). However,
medium (23.3%) users and light users (15.1%) considered the degree of importance
for this factor as average and medium while the remaining respondents evaluated
this factor as of low importance. With regard to the number of days that respondents
are willing to spend for sport tourism on a 14-day trip, 96.3% of the respondents who
were willing to spend 1 – 2 days felt that their interest in professional sports is a critical
element. In addition, this group of respondents (1 – 2 days) had a high percentage
(92.9%), indicating that ‘Experience different atmosphere and culture’ is a very impor-
tant factor for their decision to travel overseas for sport tourism. However, this group
of respondents (1 – 2 days) considered ‘Experience in watching live sporting events and
viewing facilities’ not as critical as other groups of respondents who wanted to spend
more days on sport tourism (2 ¼ 3 – 4 days, 37.7%) and (4 ¼ 7 – 8 days, 64.3%).
Discussion
The results of this study showed that the factor of respondents’ interest in sports plays
a critical role in their intention to travel overseas for sport tourism. This result is
Table 3b Continued
Factors
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6
35. Chance to be on the court after the game and interact: take photos, shoot free throws, etc.
0.099 0.153 0.075 0.034 0.366 0.122
36. Number of facilities and games to watch 0.194 0.327 0.289 0.061 0.543 0.083 37. Recognition of the city and state for sport
games and facilities (e.g., Houston in Texas and Milwaukee in Wisconsin)
0.190 0.220 0.181 0.106 0.400 0.183
38. Companions of trip 0.385 0.184 0.176 0.497 0.048 0.011 39. Length of trip (e.g., 13 days with travel
agent) 0.471 0.119 0.174 0.510 0.005 20.033
40. Distance and flight from Taiwan to the United States (Approximately one day each way)
0.624 20.095 0.060 0.093 0.214 0.120
41. Convenience to get US visa or go through security (e.g., finger print upon arrival to the US) upon arrival to the United States
0.643 20.105 0.020 0.211 0.156 0.218
42. Concern of terrorism in the United States 0.396 20.295 0.008 0.241 0.387 0.178 43. Convenience to find lodging around sport
facilities 0.521 0.022 0.055 0.404 0.206 0.068
44. Exchange rate for US Dollars and Taiwanese New Dollars
0.518 20.220 20.010 0.294 0.281 0.109
45. Obligation of military service in Taiwan (male students only)
0.120 20.035 20.041 20.158 0.454 0.051
Journal of Sport & Tourism 127
parallel with that found by previous studies (e.g., Funk et al., 2001, 2002; Kim et al.,
2008): fans’ interest in sports is a strong motive for their sport spectating, regardless
of what regions the fans are from. Variables loading in this factor include fans’ interest
in professional sports, games, and teams, competition of games, and the chance to see
players. These findings are similar to those of Lin (2006), who pointed out that Taiwa-
nese baseball fans’ team affiliation has a positive influence on their intentions to attend
foreign sporting events.
In addition to international sports fans’ interest in sports, one of the six major factors
to motivate them to travel outbound for sport tourism is the opportunity to see players
from their native countries, and other famous players and coaches in the games. Two
variables – ‘Chance to see favorite player(s), regardless of their nationality’ and
‘Chance to see player(s) from Taiwan in the games’ – were evaluated as important
among the 45 variables. These results might be due to respondents’ national pride
and interest in players or even a view of players as role models (Funk et al., 2001) so
the respondents are interested in overseas sports tourism. The results of factor analysis
also show that the opportunity to watch live sporting events and view facilities is a criti-
cal factor for international sports fans to travel overseas for sport tourism. These findings
are similar to results from past studies about fan motivations that the entertainment
atmosphere is a major factor that attracts sporting event attendees (e.g., Snelgrove
et al., 2008; Wann et al., 2008). Furthermore, Lai’s (2005) study showed that sport
fans in Taiwan demonstrate a strong interest in watching Formula One (F1) races over-
seas because there is no sport facility in Taiwan to host events such as F1 racing, not even
in some closer countries such as Japan, Malaysia, and China. The findings also conform
Table 4 Results of MANOVA and Scheffe’s Test for the Six Major Factors by Respondents’
Professional Sports Involvement and Number of Days in Sport Tourism
Professional sport involvement
Scheffe post- hoc
test
Number of days for sport tourism on a
14-day trip Scheffe post-
hoc test
Factor II. Interest in professional sports
F(2, 472) ¼ 68.938, p , 0.001
All F(5, 469) ¼ 10.995, p , 0.001
1 and 2, 3, 4
Factor III. Experience different atmosphere and culture
F(2, 472) ¼ 11.118, p , 0.001
(1, 3) F(5, 469) ¼ 4.531, p , 0.001
1 and 3, 4
Factor V. Experience in watching live sporting events and viewing facilities
F(2, 472) ¼ 29.207, p , 0.001
All F(5, 469) ¼ 9.622, p , 0.001
1 and 2, 4
Factor VI. Chance to see Asian players and famous US players and coaches in the games
F(2, 472) ¼ 10.465, p , 0.001
(1,3)
Note. Professional sport involvement: 1 ¼ Watch/read/discuss US professional sports at least once a week, 2 ¼ once per month, 3 ¼ once per year; Number of days for sport tourism in a 14-day trip: 1 ¼
1 – 2 days, 2 ¼ 3 – 4 days, 3 ¼ 5 – 6 days, 4 ¼ 7 – 8 days, 5 ¼ 9 – 10 days, 6 ¼ 11 – 12 days
128 C.-C. Yu
to those of previous studies that sport fans might be more interested in traveling overseas
especially if they have the opportunities to see players, coaches, games, facilities, and
events that they do not have in their native countries. As Delpy-Neirotti et al. (2001)
suggested, it is worthwhile for sport marketers and sport teams to attract fans who
might not have similar sport facilities in their native countries.
The results of this study also show that, in addition to respondents’ interest in
sports, their interest in traveling is a major factor in their intention to participate in
international sport tourism. They rated ‘escape for travel benefits’ and ‘trip compa-
nions’ as important criteria for their decision to participate in international sport
tourism. Variables loading in this factor from the factor analysis include ‘My interest
in traveling to the United States,’ ‘Escape for travel benefits,’ ‘trip companions,’ etc.
Similar to individuals’ motivations in tourism, sports fans’ interest in traveling for
sporting events can be attributed to push and pull factors. These findings confirm pre-
vious studies (e.g., Dann, 1977; Krippendorf, 1987; Uysal & Jurowski, 1993) that the
theory of push and pull factors also plays a critical role in inducing respondents’ inten-
tion to travel for outbound sports tourism. The World Tourism Organization (2002)
suggested that major sporting events should be planned as large tourism events
because they have been included in the supply of tourism products at numerous
Table 5 Cross Tabulation of Interest in Professional Sports by Fans’ Involvement in US
Professional Sports
Importance of Factor II interest in professional sports
US professional sports involvement read/ watch/discuss US professional sports
once/week once/month once/year Total
Very High Count 12 1 0 13 % within Factor II 92.3% 7.7% 0% 100% % within Involvement 5.6% .8% 0% 2.7%
High Count 118 43 21 182 % within Factor II 64.8% 64.8% 64.8% 64.8% % within Involvement 54.6% 32.6% 16.7% 2.7%
Average Count 81 79 72 232 % within Factor II 34.9% 34.1% 31.0% 100% % within Involvement 37.6% 59.5% 57.0% 48.8%
Low Count 4 8 29 41 % within Factor II 9.8% 19.5% 70.7% 100% % within Involvement 1.9% 6.1% 23.2% 8.6%
Very Low Count 1 2 4 7 % within Factor II 14.3% 28.6% 57.1% 100% % within Involvement .05% 1.6% 3.2% 1.5%
Total Count 216 133 126 475 % within Factor II 45.5% 28% 26.5% 100% % within Involvement 100% 100% 100% 100%
Note: N ¼ 475.
Journal of Sport & Tourism 129
tourism destinations, either as specific value-added offerings or as principal activities
in themselves.
The findings from the factor analysis also show that price and the overall ease of
arranging travel plans are critical when participants consider outbound sport
tourism. Variables loading in this factor include ‘price for trip from Taiwan to the
United States,’ ‘ticket,’ ‘other expenses,’ and the ‘overall itinerary and arrangement
of trip from Taiwan to the United States.’ This finding was found to be similar to pre-
vious studies. Lin (2006) indicated that economic reasons had a significant effect on
Taiwanese sports fans’ motivation and intention to attend foreign sporting events.
Moreover, as Nogawa et al. (1996, p. 49) indicated, although ‘sport tourists have the
potential to become active tourists in terms of touristic activities and spending pat-
terns. Their limited touristic activities were due to time constraints and economic
reasons rather than an inherent lack of interest and motivation’. Therefore, the
results of this study and previous studies have shown the importance of economic
reasons in international sport fans’ decisions to participate in outbound sport tourism.
The variables of ‘Overall itinerary and arrangement of trip’ and ‘Acceptable days
that work with the traveler’s schedule’ were evaluated as important by Taiwanese
sport fans. As there are many destinations for sport tourists to choose from,
Table 6 Cross Tabulation of Experience of Different Atmosphere and Culture through
Fans’ Involvement in US Professional Sports
Importance of Factor III experience different atmosphere and culture
US professional sports involvement read/ watch/discuss US professional sports
once/week once/month once/year Total
Very High Count 10 2 1 13 % within Factor III 76.9% 15.4% 7.7% 100% % within Involvement 4.6% 1.5% 0.8% 2.7%
High Count 94 54 28 176 % within Factor III 53.4% 30.7% 15.9% 100% % within Involvement 43.5% 40.6% 22.2% 37.1%
Average Count 103 69 85 257 % within Factor III 40.1% 26.8% 33.1% 100% % within Involvement 47.7% 51.9% 67.5% 54.1%
Low Count 8 7 12 27 % within Factor III 29.6% 25.9% 44.4% 100% % within Involvement 3.7% 5.3% 9.5% 5.7%
Very Low Count 1 1 0 2 % within Factor III 50.0% 50.0% 0% 100% % within Involvement 0.5% 0.8% 0% 0.4%
Total Count 216 133 126 475 % within Factor III 45.5% 28% 26.5% 100% % within Involvement 100% 100% 100% 100%
Note: N ¼ 475.
130 C.-C. Yu
respondents also considered the ease of arranging travel plans as a critical factor. Com-
bined with the result of the economic factor, the possible reason for this result might
be that sport fans want to get the best out of the trip for the expenses they pay. They
want convenience and to minimize hassle in their trip arrangements. As Irwin &
Sandler (1998) suggested, tourism agencies and allied hosting organizations should
work closely with sport organizations involved to actively market the event and
present related information about the events and destinations to sport tourists.
In regard to trip arrangements, the findings showed that the variable of ‘Length of
trip’ was evaluated as important among respondents. Furthermore, the participants in
this study indicated that they preferred to spend a shorter period of time (e.g., 1 – 3
days) on sport tourism for a 14-day trip. The results might be because the respondents
are also interested in participating in other activities while they travel in the United
States. The results of the factor analysis further confirm the possibility as one of the
major six factors to motivate respondents’ interest in traveling overseas for sport
tourism to ‘Experience different atmosphere and culture’ where they get the chance
to visit other tourist destinations (e.g., historical/cultural hospitality facilities, state parks, shopping malls, and other tourist destinations). Previous studies (e.g., Wu,
Table 7 Cross Tabulation of Experience in Watching Live Sporting Events and Viewing
Facilities through Fans’ Involvement in US Professional Sports
Importance of Factor V experience in watching live sporting events and viewing facilities
US professional sports involvement read/ watch/discuss US professional sports
once/week once/month once/year Total
Very High Count 10 2 0 12 % within Factor V 83.3% 16.7% 0% 100% % within Involvement 4.6% 1.5% 0% 2.5%
High Count 72 36 19 127 % within Factor V 56.7% 28.3% 15% 100% % within Involvement 33.3% 27.1% 15.1% 26.7%
Average Count 119 73 71 263 % within Factor V 45.2% 27.8% 27% 100% % within Involvement 55.1% 54.9% 56.3% 55.4%
Low Count 14 20 32 66 % within Factor V 21.2% 30.3% 48.5% 100% % within Involvement 6.5% 15.0% 25.4% 13.9%
Very Low Count 1 2 4 7 % within Factor V 14.3% 28.6% 57.1% 100% % within Involvement 0.5% 1.5% 3.2% 1.5%
Total Count 216 133 126 475 % within Factor V 45.5% 28.0% 26.5% 100% % within Involvement 100% 100% 100% 100%
Note: N ¼ 475.
Journal of Sport & Tourism 131
1993; Chuang, 2006; Delpy-Neirotti et al., 2001; Wu, 1996) support these findings. For
example, Chinese tourists consider that the experience of different cultural and his-
torical resources is an important attribute of their overseas destinations (Kim et al.,
2005). Several studies (e.g., Chen, 2008; Chuang, 2006) showed that Taiwanese tourists
also want to get involved in experiencing different cultures and sightseeing, visiting
historical sites, shopping, and purchasing souvenirs when traveling overseas. Tang’s
(2003) study of major factors for Taiwanese sports fans to travel overseas for sport
tourism confirmed that a critical factor is participating in sport-tourism-allied activi-
ties and arrangement. A study by Delpy-Neirotti et al. (2001) also confirmed that
several attributes that attracted fans to attend the 1996 Olympic Games were cultural
experience, historical significance, and international atmosphere. Kim & Chalip’s
(2004) study regarding US soccer club members’ motives, interest, and constraints
to travel to the World Cup also shows that learning about the host country and socia-
lization were attractive factors for fans to travel to the event. Thus, as Gibson, et al.
(2003) indicated, sport excursionists and sport tourists have a tendency to engage
in traditional tourist behaviors while attending away games. The findings in this
study suggest that sport organizations should work closely with local governments
and businesses to present tourist information and packages for international sports
fans to visit surrounding and nearby tourist destinations and activities.
In regard to the difference among fans’ involvement in US professional sports and the
number of days they want to spend on sport tourism, the MANOVA and the Scheffe post-
hoc test further revealed significant differences among groups regarding the importance
of the factors that motivate the respondents to participate in overseas sport tourism. The
results of the cross-tabulation calculation further indicated that the interest in pro-
fessional sports is a very critical factor for those who are highly involved in US pro-
fessional sports. As to the different number of days respondents want to spend on
sport tourism, respondents who wanted to spend 1 – 2 days on sport tourism felt that
‘experiencing different atmosphere and culture’ is an important to very important
factor. On the other hand, respondents who wanted to spend more days on sport
tourism consider that the chance to ‘experience in watching live sporting events and
viewing facilities’ is more important than other factors. The result here further suggests
that sport marketers use different promotion strategies to prepare packages for sport
tourists who have different team involvement and interest in professional sports. The
arrangement for international sports fans who want to stay a shorter period of time in
sport tourism should focus on other tourist activities and destinations. However, for
fans who want to spend more days on sport tourism, the focus should be on arranging
more live games and activities, such as viewing the facilities and meeting players.
Conclusion, Suggestions, Limitations, and Future Studies
As the World Tourism Organization (2001a) indicated, the number of people traveling
will continue to boom in the 21st century. In addition to the development of sport
tourism in the United States, traveling overseas for sport tourism, in particular pro-
fessional sports and mega-events, has also become popular with international sport
132 C.-C. Yu
fans. Thus, it is important to understand the factors that might influence international
sports fans’ intention in traveling outbound for sport tourism.
The results of this study show that factors related to fans’ interest in professional
sports and travel have played important roles in their intention to travel overseas
for sport tourism. Fans with great interest in US professional sports further signifi-
cantly influence their intention to travel to the United States for sport tourism
because they like the opportunities to see players from their native countries or
other famous players playing in the games. In addition, the opportunity to see live
games and view facilities that fans do not have in their native country is also critical
for them. The results further suggest that sport marketers can first focus on inter-
national sports fans (e.g., teams’ international fans clubs) who are enthusiastic in pro-
fessional sports because enthusiastic fans’ interest in sport really motivates them to
travel overseas for sport tourism.
This study also shows that most respondents are interested in spending 1 – 2 days of a
14-day trip for sport tourism, and the major factor that attracts their participation is the
chance to experience a different atmosphere and culture. On the other hand, respondents
who want to spend more days on sport tourism consider the chance to watch live sporting
events, view facilities, and participate in related activities during the games critical. Given
that sport tourists from different countries and with interests in different sports might
have different expectations and arrangements for trip itineraries, the findings suggest
that sport marketers and affiliated organizations such as travel agents need to determine
whether their service offerings appeal to international sport tourists. For example, the
findings of Rosenbaum & Spears’ (2006) study revealed that Japanese tourists are inter-
ested in engaging in a range of shopping activities. As a result, sport marketers might want
to design shopping activities or provide more shopping information for Japanese fans.
While working with sport tourists who want to spend a short time on sport tourism,
sport marketers might want to focus on providing information to such fans about cul-
tural experiences or other well-recognized, popular tourist destinations. With regard
to fans who are willing to spend more days on a sport tourism trip, sport marketers
ought to incorporate activities such as a post-game meet-and-greet with a professional
athlete, a tour of sport facilities, or purchases of sports licensing products.
The results of this study provide sport marketers with information on developing
sport tourism for international sport fans. However, the limitations of this study are
that only respondents from Taiwan were chosen for this study, and thus, the results
cannot represent all international fans. In addition, college students were the respon-
dents for this study as most college students may have to rely on parents’ financial
support for outbound trips. For future studies, a comparison among respondents
from different countries and age groups would be helpful for research about inter-
national sport tourism.
Note
[1] In this paper, several international players from Asia were included to illustrate examples of sport tourism and globalization. In East Asia, an individual’s last name comes first followed
Journal of Sport & Tourism 133
by his or her first name (e.g., Yao Ming). However, some Asian players’ names are translated into the Western format (e.g., Ichiro Suzuki). In order to avoid confusion, the researcher styled Asian players’ names as shown in English-language media coverage.
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