reviews

LIGHTING AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT 2

Topic: How lighting affects student achievement

I. Introduction

A. Importance of lighting in student achievement

i. Classroom lighting is an environmental variable that mediates student achievement through effects on cognition, attention, engagement, visual comfort, and physiological well-being. While research supports the pedagogical benefits of natural daylight and optimized artificial lighting, findings remain heterogeneous across studies, necessitating further investigation into individualized lighting conditions for high school students with disabilities.

ii. Many students spend over 80% of their school day in a classroom while completing highly demanding visual tasks (Gao et al., 2025).

iii. Research has supported that the physical environment of a classroom has an impact on students’ academic success including reading, writing, and mathematics (Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

iv. Traditional classroom lighting often relies on overhead fluorescent or LED fixtures, which may not provide the most comfortable conditions for all learners (Karlsson et al., 2022; Yuen et al., 2023).

B. Relationship between lighting and achievement in the classroom

i. Academic achievement and lighting have been researched in the areas of math and logic scores (Baloch et al., 2020) as well as attention and engagement (Pulay et al., 2018).

ii. Artificial lighting characteristics, including color temperature and lighting technology (Pulay et al., 2018) may influence observable on-task behavior and engagement (Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

iii. A study of 2,670 students between the ages of 8 and 13 across 12 European countries examined the relationship between classroom daylight characteristics and mathematics and logic assessment scores (Baloch et al., 2020).

iv. Day-like lighting has been identified with a small but significant improvement in executive attention compared with dim, warm-white lighting (Wessolowski & Rahim, 2025).

II. Definition of terms

A. Circadian Rhythm Theory shows that the human body runs on an approximate 24-hour biological cycle which helps to regulate sleep, wakefulness, hormone production, body temperature, and alertness (Spitschan & Santhi, 2022).

B. Human Centric Light (HCL) is lighting that is designed with human biological, psychological, and visual needs in mind (Karlsson et al., 2022).

C. Light-emitting diode (LED) is artificial lighting that offer different color temperatures (Karlsson et al., 2022).

D. Illuminance is the amount of light reaching a surface, this type of light is commonly measured in lux (lx), and a lux is the standard unit used to measure illuminance, with one lux equaling one lumen distributed over one square meter. (Gao et al., 2025; Setiati & Budiarto, 2021).

E. Artificial lighting is produced from a man-made electric light system; this may include floor lamp or overhead lighting (Karlsson et al., 2022).

F. Warm lighting is when the light produces a yellow or orange hue and usually has a lower Kelven reading (Pulay et al., 2018).

G. Cool lighting is a light that produces a white or blue hue and produces a higher Kelvin rating (Pulay et al., 2018).

H. Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) is a measurement expressed in Kelvin that identifies if a light source appears to be a warm or cool light (Pulay et al., 2018).

I. Kelvin is the unit of measurement used to describe the correlated color temperature (CCT) of a light source; lower levels include warmer lighting and as the Kelvin increases, the light becomes cool (Pulay et al., 2018).

J. Student Achievement in this literature review is a direct measure of performance including assessments and completing academic tasks/on-task behavior as well as indirect measures of participant surveys and perceptions (Miller & Scott, 2012).

III. Review of previous Research on how lighting affects student achievement

A. Classroom lighting may influence visual development

i. Natural daylight may have effect on the progression and development and progression of myopia in elementary students (Suh et al., 2022).

ii. Students that were students with access to lower classroom illuminance had greater increases in axial eye length over a six-month period, particularly among students who were not initially myopic (Suh et al., 2022).

B. Lighting and attention and cognitive abilities

i. Participants in the study conducted by Wessolowski and Rahim (2025) were exposed to bright daylight-like lighting and demonstrated an approximate 11% shorter conflict-related reaction-time difference (Wessolowski & Rahim, 2025).

ii. Wesslowski and Rahim (2025) did not identify any statistically significant data linked to lighting and attention (Wessolowski & Rahim, 2025).

iii. Modifies LED lighting was associated with improved attention performance in male high school students (Bae et al., 2026).

iv. A study conducted by Gao et al. (2025) found that light intensity (lx and Kelvin) may have an impact of memory, concentration, and reaction time (Gao et al., 2025).

a) Gao et al. found that cognitive performance generally improved as illumination increased to 600 lx (Gao et al., 2025).

b) The study also found that excessively dim or bright may cause visual fatigue, discomfort, or decreased cognitive results (Gao et al., 2025).

C. Student Behavior and Engagement

i. Pulay et al. (2018) found a correlation in elementary student on-task behavior and Kelvin ratings (Pulay et al., 2018).

ii. Student engagement was generally higher under LED lighting than under fluorescent lighting in an early childhood classroom (Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

D. Circadian rhythm and daytime alertness are factors that regulate the sleep-wake patterns, melatonin production and alertness (Spitschan & Santhi, 2022).

i. Wave lengths have a direct effect in circadian regulation (Bae et al., 2026).

ii. Human-centric lighting can mimic changes in natural daylight throughout the day and may help circadian functioning and classroom comfort since school times differ drastically from region to region as well as throughout cultures (Karlsson et al., 2022).

iii. All individuals have a unique set of psychological differences that influence how students react to lighting, therefore, making it hard to establish a single lighting condition that optimizes alertness for all students (Spitschan & Santhi, 2022).

IV. Participants Information

A. Perceptions of lighting

i. A study including graduate students exposed to filtered fluorescent lighting reported a more positive perception and less physical illness such as headaches and visual fatigue (Yuen et al., 2023).

ii. Lighting intensity influenced physiological arousal in a study of elementary students (Gao et al., 2025).

iii. Emotional comfort and physiological arousal are linked to classroom participation (Gao et al., 2025).

B. Strength of studies

i. Several studies in the literature review comprised of lighting in existing classroom, in organic educational setting which allowed the researchers to observe students under real-time classroom conditions (Bae et al., 2026; Pulay et al., 2018; Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

ii. The review includes studies involving different lighting types and intensities to correlate the significance of student achievement dependent on the lighting conditions

iii. Baloch et al. 2020 conducted a large scale study of academic outcomes and daylight characteristics across different schools and geographic regions that included 23 countries in Europe (Baloch et al., 2020).

iv. The studies investigating physiological responses, attention, emotional comfort/well-being, and visual health link numerous studies on how lighting may influence students' academic achievement (Spitschan & Santhi, 2022; Suh et al., 2022; Wessolowski & Rahim, 2025; Yuen et al., 2023).

C. Weakness of studies

i. Many empirical studies focus on preschool or elementary students (Baloch et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2025; Pulay et al., 2018; Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

ii. Several studies used relatively small samples which may impact the validity of the results (Gao et al., 2025; Pulay et al., 2018; Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

iii. There is a very small number of studies that measure academic achievement or long-term progress.

iv. Research involving students with disabilities is very limited, and the review of the study including participants with autism does not make correlations to a broader picture of students with disabilities (Pulay & Williamson, 2019; Wizaka et al., 2021).

V. Implications, future direction and conclusion

A. Implications of research and ethics

i. Classroom lighting is a single factor that may influence learning outcomes and should not be a stand-alone intervention to improve academic achievement (Baloch et al., 2020; Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

ii. Light interventions are still controversial, and some consider it unethical to conduct such experiments on humans (Wessolowski & Rahim, 2025).

iii. Individual differences and response to lighting suggest that modifications should consider students’ needs and preferences (Spitschan & Santhi, 2022).

B. Future Direction

i. More data is needed to measure work completion and grades which will extend research to practical academic achievement outcomes.

ii. Including students wake and sleep times while in class may help determine whether classroom lighting is linked to student engagement and participation; both directly linked to academic achievement (Baloch et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2025).

C. Conclusion

i. Natural daylight may influence academic performance (Baloch et al., 2020; Setiati & Budiarto, 2021).

ii. Classroom lighting influences visual health, physiological functioning, attention, and emotions well-being that may contribute to students’ academic achievement (Spitschan & Santhi, 2022; Suh et al., 2022; Wessolowski & Rahim, 2025; Yuen et al., 2023).

iii. LED and fluorescent lighting may influence student engagement, behaviors, and cognitive functioning (Bae et al., 2026; Gao et al., 2025; Pulay et al., 2018; Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

The Effects of Classroom Lighting on Student Achievement

Amy E. Hart

Department of Education, Southwest Minnesota State University

SPED625: Applied Research and Assessment in Education

Dr. Michaela Carattini

Fall 2026

Introduction

The physical environment of a classroom is an important component of the condition in which students learn. Classroom lighting is particularly important as students are required to have visual access to classroom instructions, materials, and activities. Many students spend over 80% of their school day in a classroom while completing highly demanding visual tasks (Gao et al., 2025). Students must maintain attention, alertness, and participate in classroom activities for positive classroom achievement. Gao et al. (2025) outline classroom lighting as a potential contributor to visual comfort and cognitive performance (Gao et al., 2025). Similarly, Pulay and Williamson (2019) agree that lighting is a critical component of the physical environment and must be observed to understand how lighting affects student achievement (Pulay & Williamson, 2019). Further, there is research that supports the physical environment of a classroom has an impact on students’ academic success in reading, writing, and mathematics (Pulay & Williamson, 2019). These findings signify that classroom lighting should be considered alongside instructional practices, rather than treated solely as an architectural concern, to address student achievement in the classroom.

Relationship Between Lighting and Student Achievement in the Classroom

The link between academic achievement and lighting have been researched in the areas of math and logic scores (Baloch et al., 2020) as well as attention and engagement (Pulay et al., 2018). Frequently, traditional classrooms lighting relies on overhead fluorescent or Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) fixtures that may not provide conditions of visual comfort for all learners (Karlsson et al., 2022; Yuen et al., 2023). Characteristics of artificial lighting including color temperature and lighting technology may influence observable on-task behavior and engagement (Pulay et al., 2018; Pulay & Williamson, 2019).

Definitions

Circadian Rhythm Theory

Circadian Rhythm Theory shows that the human body runs on an approximate 24-hour biological cycle which helps to regulate sleep, wakefulness, hormone production, body temperature, and alertness (Spitschan & Santhi, 2022).

Human-Centric Lighting

Human- Centric Light (HCL) is lighting that is designed with human biological, psychological, and visual needs in mind (Karlsson et al., 2022).

Light-Emitting Diode and Artificial Lighting

Light- Emitting Diodes (LED) are artificial lighting that offer different color temperatures (Karlsson et al., 2022).

Illuminance and Lux

Illuminance is the amount of light reaching a surface, this type of light is commonly measured in lux (lx), and a lux is the standard unit used to measure illuminance, with one lux equaling one lumen distributed over one square meter. (Gao et al., 2025; Setiati & Budiarto, 2021).

Warm and Cool Lighting, Correlated Color Temperature, and Kelvin

Warm lighting is when the light produces a yellow or orange hue and usually has a lower Kelven reading whereas cool lighting is a light that produces a white or blue hue and produces a higher Kelvin rating (Pulay et al., 2018). (Pulay et al., 2018). Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) is a measurement expressed in Kelvin that identifies if a light source appears to be a warm or cool light (Pulay et al., 2018). Kelvin is the unit of measurement used to describe the correlated color temperature of a light source; lower levels include warmer lighting and as the Kelvin increases, the light becomes cool (Pulay et al., 2018).

Student Achievement

The United Stated Department of Education in partnership with the Center for Educator Compensation Reform defines student achievement as student attainment, gain, percentile growth, standard value-added, and customized value-added (Miller & Scott, 2012).

Review of Previous Research on Lighting and Student Achievement

Classroom Lighting and Visual Development

Suh et al. (2022) compared first-grade students at schools with relatively low and high daylight factors, following refractive error and axial eye length over six months. Suh et al. found changes in refractive error and axial length did not significantly differ; however, in a subgroup of students with shorter initial axial length, axial elongation was greater in the lower-daylight school (0.19 mm) than in the higher-daylight school (0.15 mm; p = .049) (Suh et al., 2022). These results suggest a possible protective association for some children. Although these results show physical changes in the eye based on daylight factors, the findings are not statistically significant and cannot be generalized as direct evidence of improved academic performance based on the physical development of the eye.

Lighting, Attention, and Cognitive Abilities

Attention may serve as a factor linking lighting with student achievement. Wessolowski and Rahim (2025) reported significantly better executive attention under bright daylight than under warm-white lighting in a study of 91 participants at the colligate level, citing that 11% of participants demonstrated shorter conflict-related reaction-time difference (Wessolowski & Rahim, 2025). Despite their findings, the authors note that findings from previous short-term lighting interventions have been mixed, highlighting the importance of distinguishing the specific attention component measured from general academic achievement.

Evidence in the secondary level is emerging; Bae et al. (2026) conducted a two-week study involving 65 male Korean high school students. The participants were split in two groups, and both groups experienced daylight, while the intervention group received LED lighting enhanced in the 470–490 nm wavelength range. Bea et al. (2026) reported a significant group-by-time effect for errors in one attention-test trial, but no significant sleep or mood outcomes. The small sample, short duration of the study, and limited pattern of statistically significant results mean the study supports cautious investigation rather than a broad claim that LED lighting improve adolescent learning (Bea et al., 2026).

Gao et al. (2025) studied elementary students under five illumination conditions, combining cognitive tasks with physiological indicators and surveys. The results suggest that lighting intensity can be associated with performance and arousal, with a reported favorable desktop illuminance range of 600–800 lx (Gao et al., 2025). This study examined illuminance rather than a particular Kelvin rating that optimizes cognitive abilities. Together, these studies indicate that light level, spectrum, and exposure context should be examined as two separate variables.

Engagement and Student Behavior

Student engagement is substantial as task initiation and completion demonstrate positive student growth and achievement. In a study of elementary students Pulay et al. (2018) found that higher CCT lighting was associated with more on-task behavior (p = .038) (Pulay et al., 2018). In addition, Pulay and Williamson (2019) reported greater engagement under LED lighting than fluorescent lighting in a pre-kindergarten classroom (Pulay & Williamson, 2019). Both findings provide a rationale for examining participation and work completion as practical outcome of student achievement.

References

Bae, S., Hwang, E., & Jung, K.-Y. (2026). Real-world effects of melanopic-enhanced classroom lighting on sleep, mood, and cognition in male Korean adolescents: A field-based pilot study. Clocks & Sleep (Online), 8(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/clockssleep8010006

Baloch, R., Maesano, C., Christoffersen, J., Mandin, C., Csobod, E., de Oliveira Fernandes, E., & Annesi-Maesano, I. (2020). Daylight and school performance in European schoolchildren. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(1), 258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010258

Gao, B., Fu, Y., Gao, J., Liu, H., & Gao, W. (2025). Effects of the light environment in elementary school classrooms on students’ cognitive performance and galvanic skin indicators. Indoor Air, 2025(1). https://doi.org/10.1155/ina/3122870

Karlsson, T., Kjellander, J., Machado, Å., Strandberg, O., Götlind, P., & Karlsson, R. (2022). The school lighting innovation dilemma. IOP Conference Series. Earth

Miller, J. & Scott, J. (2012). Understanding the basics of measuring student achievement. U.S. Department of Education. https://eed.communities.ed.gov/resources/understanding-basics-measuring-student-achievement

Pulay, A., Read, M., Tural, E., & Lee, S. (2018). Examining student behavior under two correlated color temperature levels of lighting in an elementary school classroom. Educational Planning, 23(3), 57–69.

Pulay, A., & Williamson, A. (2019). A case study comparing the influence of LED and fluorescent lighting on early childhood student engagement in a classroom setting. Learning Environments Research, 22(1), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-018-9263-3

Setiati, T. W., & Budiarto, A. (2021). Optimization of lighting design in classroom for visual comfort (Case Study: Universitas Tridinanti Palembang Tower). IOP Conference Series. Earth and Environmental Science, 738(1), 12035. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/738/1/012035

Spitschan, M., & Santhi, N. (2022). Individual differences and diversity in human physiological responses to light. EBioMedicine, 75, Article 103640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103640

Suh, Y.-W., Ha, S.-G., & Kim, S.-H. (2022). Effect of classroom illuminance on the development and progression of myopia in school children. Korean Journal of Ophthalmology, 36(3), 194–201. https://doi.org/10.3341/kjo.2021.0170

Wessolowski, N., & Rahim, R. J. (2025). Is executive attention affected by environmental lighting conditions? PloS One, 20(1), e0305998. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305998

Wizaka, W., Santoso, T., & Prawata, A. (2021). Study of daylight optimization for autism school in Cempaka Putih, Jakarta. IOP Conference Series. Earth and Environmental Science, 794(1), 12206. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/794/1/012206

Yuen, H. K., Wood, A. L., Krentel, J. E., Oster, R. A., Cunningham, A. D., & Jenkins, G. R. (2023). Emotional responses of college students to filtered fluorescent lighting in a classroom (v3). Health Psychology Research, 11(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.70169