Annotated Bibliography
Section Political Sciences
RIGHT-WING EXTREMISM AS A SOURCE OF SECURITY THREATS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Peter Ondria, PhD.1
PhDr. Rastislav Malovec2
1 Danubius University, Faculty of Public Policy and Public Administration, Sládkovičovo,
Slovakia
2 Matej Bel University, Faculty of Political Science and International Relations, Banská
Bystrica, Slovakia
ABSTRACT
The concept of political extremism is used by lay and expert public in various contexts.
Because of a diversity of its perception in political, societal, journalist, official,
criminal, scientific, or lay context, it is extraordinary vague concept, which belongs
among the most amorphous concepts in the social sciences. The issue of the extremism
has attracted, during the last 30 years, attention of the major part particularly the
European political science community. Development and research of this phenomenon
is directly proportional to the successes, which the extremism achieved. In this context,
the article is focused on the issue of right political extremism with the accent on the
Slovak Republic.
Keywords: extremism, far right, Slovakia, Slovak Brotherhood, political extremism
INTRODUCTION
In lay communication a concept of extremism is used as concept like racism, fascism,
neofascism, Nazism, neo-Nazism, nationalism, ultra-nationalism, radicalism, right and
left-wing radicalism, right and left-wing populism, far right and far left, antisemitism,
hostility to foreigners, and so on. It means, that it is used as common indication for
many antidemocratic political ideas, set of ideas or activities, which can on the one hand
show some common attributes, and on the other hand can be mutually different. In case
of political extremism, it is not just about one integrated ideological direction, but about
the sum of many ideological fragments on both sides of ideological spectrum, of which
a common start point is based on resistance against free democratic constitutional and
political order and promotion of idea of new social-political establishment. Political
extremism is thus considered as counterpart to democratic constitutional state. [11]
When we look at the origin of the investigated concept, from etymological point words
“extreme” or “extremist” are derived from superlative of Latin word exterus, extremus,
what in understanding of investigated concept means utmost, furthest. [3] In political
meaning we talk about left and right fringe of ideological spectrum, of which center is
accepted by majority.
According to the Ministry of the Interior we can under the concept of extremism
understand “verbal graphical, physical or other activities linked generally with poised
ideological or other context, which are developed by the individuals or groups of people
with opinions markedly beyond of generally recognized social norms with clear
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elements of intolerance, particularly racial, national, religious or other similar
incomprehension, which attack against democratic principles, social organization,
fundamental human rights, life, health, property or public order”. [4] Extremism
(political) though represents an antithesis of democratic constitutional state and
concerns antidemocratic mentality and effort, which refuses constitutional state and its
fundamental values and rules.
For political extremism is characteristic unwillingness to adopt political compromises,
which stems from conviction about exclusive approach to political and historical truth.
Ideology of political extremism contains the elements of intolerance and rejection of
valid legal and moral norms. In order to enforce political goals, it bows down to use
basically all resources, including those undemocratic and violent (in an invasive form
also terrorism). Political extremism is in democratic society and in democratic
constitutional establishment irremovable phenomenon. Where exists social conflict,
there exists also extremism and when this tension retreats in one sphere, it accelerates in
other one. [14]
Even though many authors date creation of extremist political formations in the Western
Europe since the second half of 1980s, the expression itself has got significantly longer
history. In the first half of 19th century were as extreme considered those groupings,
which markedly deviate from dominant political forces. Firstly they emerged as variants
of conservative and socialistic formations, which were formed as reactions on liberal
ideas of enlightenment and French revolution. Political extremism can show off, in
democratic regimes, in various forms: in political opinions of population, in political-
extremist doctrines, in extremist organizations or in extremist actions and strategies.
[11] Among the most often forms within the categorization of political extremism in
professional literature we consider right and left-wing extremism. Although right and
left-wing movements are significantly different in its contents, methods of goals
achieving are relatively similar. Besides that, political extremism is in literature
distinguished as religious, ethnic, or ecological.
Theoretical aspect of right-wing extremism
Right-wing extremism represents “a sum of attitudes, ways of behavior and actions,
which are organized or not, which are based on from racist or ethically conditioned
social inequality of human being, which require ethical homogeneity of the nation and
deny a principle of equality anchored in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
they justify a priority of society over the individuals, deny a pluralism of values of
liberal democracy and they want to defined democracy as retrogressive”. [4]
Many German political scientists consider right-wing extremism as individualistic,
democratic base of human equality negotiating movement, which denies liberal and
democratic forces and their resulting product, which is democratic constitutional state.
In the center of all right-wing extremist doctrines stands strict denial of principles of
human equality. Among the characteristics of right-wing extremism, we at the same
time include anti-pluralism, anti-communism, anti-parliamentarism, desire for law and
order, desire for authoritative state on the forehead with the strong personality (a
leadership principle). [14] It represents such part anti-societal action with extremist
features, which motive is racist, national, or ethic hate and there is missing other
material incentive for the action. Escalated extreme nationalism, passing to racism, is
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manifested as a main motive of action. The white race stands, according to the followers
of this ideology, on the top of human development and its most perfect leaders are
Aryans. Nowadays it is about an ideology proclaimed by right-wing oriented part of
movement of skins, but also by other groups. The biggest crime is, according to the
followers of this theory, is mixing of white race with other, including Semitic. [2] The
most militant racist, in this sense, talk about necessity of outbreak of “Racial holy war”
or so called “white revolution”. This racist theory has, in the practice, many forms,
typical is although by hate, contempt and hostility against the people of other skin, it is
aimed against immigrants, Gypsies, Jews, but also against so called “white waste”,
where are included all ideological opponents, left-wing oriented youth, anarchists,
humanists, people on the margin of society, homeless, addicts, and so on. [2] Left-
wing extremism is more difficult to define than right-wing extremism. The reason is the
fact, that extreme left comes from much wider spectrum of ideological background,
which contradict each other, and at the same time there is much less obvious border
between radicalism and extremism. Groups and organizations included into left-wing
extremism come particularly from ideas of Marxism, Bolshevism, Trotskyism,
syndicalism, anarchism. (Gujdová, 2012) Ideologically it comes from “anarchistic, anti-
globalist, anti-capitalist and Marxist theories, while it denies outer authority and asserts
ideas of so called free individual. Further it is characterized by social and class
prejudices, it sympathizes with historical communism and anarchism. Followers are
trying for absolute equality in the society. During the 20th century got to the fore issues
of human rights, nature protection and immigration.” [4]
Extremist doctrines (anarchism, communism) agree with democratic constitutional state
in upheaval of fundamental human equality above all. This primary principle tries to
expand on all areas of life – political, economic, cultural etc. They require total
liberation of individual from all societal pressures and consider as viable an
achievement of order without dominion formed by free and equal people. Anarchist and
communist teaching have this common aim, but they differ by the way of its
achievement. Anarchism believes in sensible and spontaneous transition. Communists
require total submission of individual to the common interest and in the outbreak of the
revolution [14]. For left-wing extremists, it is possible to talk about a solid denial of
parliamentary democracy and about promotion of model of direct democracy. Left-wing
extremist scene is perceived by the society as much more tolerant. The reason is an
argument, that these groups do not publicly declare repression of rights and freedoms of
other citizens. Recently we can claim upward tendency of these activities also in
Slovakia – particularly demonstrations and public protests, for example regarding with
operations in Iraq, accession of SR into NATO and European union, etc. Into such
actions is partially included also wider society, and in the end, they provide, except a
platform on the presentation of ideas, also a space for acquisition of new supporters, and
alternatively members. [5] Among the left-wing oriented extremist groups, we can
include anarchists, anti-globalists, radical ecological movements, members of the Punk
movement, anti-fascist movements AFA and ANTIFA and so on. This outlined strict
separation of left and right-wing political extremism is not so clear, because both poles
intersect in many areas and have some features also as common. Today’s right-wing
extremists operate for example with the symbols and turn to tactics and strategy of left-
wing extremism. [13]
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Right-wing extremism in the conditions of the Slovak Republic
Nowadays are right-wing extremist movements organized on diametrically different
level as at the beginning of 1990s. Previously it was more about random groupings
without more permanent course and structure, which public perceived as rioters and
fighters. In last years it has occurred a qualitative change in the activities of these
subjects towards radicalization and efforts to expand of member base. Some groups
have become official and transformed on registered civic societies (for example Slovak
Brotherhood, New free Slovakia or Unity of Slovak Youth). Other form of
transformation is shift to clothing companies. Known brand of clothing, which is made
by companies linked to the extremist movements, is for example German brand Thor
Steinar. In Slovakia was created a brand Eighty-Eight – 88 – which is a number with
strong nationalist symbolism. The eight letter in the alphabet is H and 88 in the code of
neo-Nazist stands for HH, i.e. “Heil Hitler” [1] In the conditions of the Slovak Republic,
within the right-wing extremism are active groups, characteristic by its symbolism, a
regular meeting place (mainly catering facilities), common aim, some hierarchy and
they make itself more visible as a group particularly by physical attacks, foundation of
web-pages with racist, resp. xenophobic content and distribution of books and musical
CDs with racist or xenophobic texts. Mainly we talk about:
• Various Skinheads groups acting in many cities of Slovakia:
o Slovakia Hammer Skins
o Blood and Honour Slovakia
o Blood and Honour Cassoviac
o Slovakia – Engerau Crew
• Slovak Brotherhood – National party, which was constitutionally forbidden
• Various civic associations New Free Slovakia and Unity of Slovak Youth, which member base consists of former or still active members of some right-wing oriented
extremist groups. [2]
Groups, generally denoted as “Skinheads”, act particularly in the cities of Malacky,
Stupava, Trnava, Skalica, Holíč, Prievidza, Topoľčany, Nitra, Žilina, Martin, Zvolen,
Detva, Veľký Krtíš, Prešov, Humenné, Poprad, Bardejov, Košice, Rožňava,
Ružomberok, Trečín. Skinheads are divided into two groups: on Nazis and on
nationalists. Both groups are characterized by racism and anti-semitism. The aim of
Skinheads is a revolution, which ensures a victory of Aryan race. The main enemies are
Jews (they are originators of all evil), slave, not Aryan races, and traitors of the race,
who do not agree with ideology. Nazis and nationalists mostly fight against a common
enemy. [9]
In Slovakia there exist nowadays many illegal groups and organizations, which conduct
and spread fascist and racist goals. Probably the most active are above mentioned Blood
and Honour and Slovakia Hammer Skins. Both are actually branches of organizations,
which operate in many states of Europe or the USA, Australia, South Afrika, etc. Blood
and Honour has in Slovakia, in Bratislava, main office, which works as P.O.Box, where
the members and followers of this group may order and English magazine Blood and
Honour, a Slovakian magazine 1939 and other printed materials. Also, they can order
clothing with their brands. Local branches are also in the other cities in Slovakia (e.g.
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Poprad, Nitra) where they develop their own activities. Blood nad Honour in its
materials clearly promotes racism, violence and anti-semitism. Slovakia Hammer Skins
are also one of the branches of the worldwide organization Hammer Skinheads. It is, on
the territory of Slovakia, the most active and the most dangerous group of this kind. [9]
Slovak Brotherhood in the period of so called silent phase (until 2002/2003) has acted in
public very minimally, it has been activated especially by demonstrations against
NATO during the operation in Kosovo in 1999, by disagreement with the membership
in the EU by the production of a sticker, where the 12 European pentacles were
substituted by David’s stars. They have reported itself to the ideological alliance with
organizations as Blood and Honour. Intensifying of preparation activity of the Slovak
Brotherhood, which took place in 2002, can be understood as the preparation for
establishing of a political party. Leaders of Slovak Brotherhood in that period reflected
on the position of the nationalist stream of the Slovak politics after that, when neither of
the branches of split Slovak national party entered the Parliament [8], and in this
situation decided to break the bonds with the underground far right subcultures, from
which the organization was created, and enter the politics. The organization has become
famous also due to the organization of uniformed marches in various cities in Slovakia.
Slovak Brotherhood has become more publicly aware in years 2005-2006, when it was
registered by the Ministry of Interior as the political party named Slovak Brotherhood –
National Party and tried to participate in the elections into the National Council. This
party was an outcome of the political ambitions of the leaders of a civic society Slovak
Brotherhood, led by “leader” Marián Kotleba. Political program, which has been
presented by leaders of the party, represented in the history of post-November Slovak
political partisanship so far, the most ambitious attempt of the transformation of
political extremism in the sphere of politics and legal electoral competition. [6]
The party itself called it “Folk Program”, which has become a main factor of a
dissolution of Slovak Brotherhood – National party by the resolution of the Supreme
Court in 2006. According to then prosecutor, the party contravened by their statute, their
program and their activity the Constitution of the SR, constitutional laws, general laws
and international treaties. Slovak Brotherhood – National party is the first, and until
now only one political party dissolved by the Supreme Court of the SR. “Folk program”
by its character allowed, further, to study a profile of the whole party, nevertheless, that
firstly in economic or security area it has contained relatively naive passages and
simplified interpretation of the social reality. This intolerant and xenophobic material (it
is not available presently) can be, in short, summarized as a complete attack on the
system of parliamentary democracy, values of democratic constitutional state, and equal
approach to the rights and freedoms for all groups of the population. [6]
The main goal of the political party is to build a new Slovak state of state on the
national and social principle. In this case, a program goal was to enforce the change
from the current system of parliamentary democracy of the political parties on the
vertebrate principle of the arrangement of the new Slovak state. Folk program of Slovak
Brotherhood – National party has declared a vision, that the society will divided, based
on grouping of the citizens according to their occupation, into ten stages:
1. soil, forestry and water management
2. industry
3. education, science and research
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4. defense and security
5. rescue and health service
6. state service
7. trade, services and self-employed
8. money and insurance
9. free occupations
10. national minorities. [10]
Registration of the citizens into the status should be voluntary and only a registered
member of the status would dispose by the right to vote. This regulation is not
consistent of the article 30 of the section 1 of the Constitution of the SR, according to
which the citizens have the right to take part on the administration of the public affairs
directly or by the free choice of their representatives [12], and in addition sorting into
the statuses, where the minorities were forbidden to sort according to the occupation as
the others, were a discriminating step, and suppression of the right on the national
minorities. The role of the Slovak state was, according to the “Folk program” to secure
own Slovak nation in all areas of life and after that to ensure care after other citizens of
Slovak state. Members of national minorities had, according to the statute, option to
leave the territory of the Slovak state and live in their “mother” state, in case that they
will not be satisfied with this principle. [10]
National principle, on which should be based the society of the Slovak republic
according to the program of Slovak Brotherhood – National party, was in a conflict with
the Constitution of the SR, especially with its second title. According to the article 12 of
the Constitution of the SR are the people free and equal in dignity and rights.
(Constitution of the SR, 1992) At the same time this program reckoned on the plan to
leave all organizations, which by some way limit the Slovak nation. Among those
belong of course European Union, NATO, International Monetary Fund, World Bank,
and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. They did not forget also on
United Nations, which considered as an organization of bureaucrats, who live at the
expense of the Slovak economy. [10]
After 2006, when the Supreme court has dissolved the Slovak Brotherhood – National
party, this party continued in its activity as a civic association Slovak Brotherhood. This
association was dissolved in the November 2008 by the Ministry of Interior. The
Supreme court cancelled this judgment in July 2009 and some right-wing extremists
from this association dominated before the parliamentary elections in 2010 Friend of
Wine Party, which was later renamed to People’s Party Our Slovakia led by Marian
Kotleba. This party, although, in parliamentary elections gained only a week support,
but their members were nominated into the elections into local self-government in
Banská Bystrica and continuously tried to enter politics. This new party - People’s Party
Our Slovakia – formally gave up from open manifestations of anti-Semitism,
sympathies with totalitarian ideologies, or using the uniform, because it would be re-
dissolved. [7]
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CONCLUSION
In the current democratic society is the occurrence of any form of extremism of right-
and left-wing movements many times accompanied by crises in the family, in the
disintegration of ingrained moral principles, and is assessed as undesirable and negative
social phenomenon, although this phenomenon is perceived negatively by the society
when it occurs, thus in its most harmful form, mostly when hitting the fundamental
human rights and freedoms.
In the European states follows the right-wing extremist movement the tradition of
previous nationalist and late racist and anti-Semitists movements, which were aimed on
the change and setting and creating of a new society according to its ideas. Their ideas
about the ways of performing this process are different. Radical right-wing extremists
count on the fight, even with the extermination war, moderate extremists count on the
willingly accepted their ideals by the society. Right-wing extremists are confident about
their precedence, by which they show the world and their surroundings their activities
aimed at the quality of the society accenting the race, ethnics or corporations, which
identifies the people, and at the same time, they differ them from others.
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