Order 860560: Social Psychology Research Project on self-enhancements
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Tracy Truong & Cynthia Martinez
Annotated Bibliography
Social Psychology
2/19/18
Self-Enhancement
Self-enhancement techniques, particularly the better-than-average effect, self-serving
beliefs, and downward social comparison, can positively or negatively influence individuals to
behave a certain way in different socio-cultural contexts. These techniques can be effective as
demonstrated by several studies because it can potentially improve the development of your
self-concept and enhance self-esteem.
Self-concept is the idea that an individual can bring about who they are based on the
actual self and imagined self (Kassin, Fein and Markus, 2017, p. 55). This can be based on one’s
experience because of the acquired knowledge one has about themselves (Kassin, Fein &
Markus, 2017, p. 57). This can be correlated to self-esteem, the idea that an individual may
experience a positive or a negative attitude towards oneself based on characteristics (Kassin, Fein
& Markus, 2017, p. 76)). In other words, a person will evaluate themselves based on how
satisfied they may be about who they are (Kassin, Fein & Markus, 2017, p. 76). Self-concept and
self-esteem can intertwine with one another. Based on the individual’s awareness to one’s own
self-evaluations, this may lead individuals to have a positive self esteem in an unconscious way.
For instance, a person may experience positive self-esteem and believes that the skills are above
and beyond people’s expectations. Kassin, Fein and Markus (2017) explains how there are
several self-enhancement techniques to help maintain or enhance their self-esteem.
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The first technique includes the better-than-average effect. This is described by the
tendency of a person to think themselves as better than average (Kassin, Fein & Markus, 2017,
p.89). This can be a good technique, as it is a way for one’s highly positive self criticism to be
modified in a way to boost one’s self-esteem. Kim, Kwon and Chiu (2017) puts this mechanism
to the test, by grabbing participants to measure what their ability in comparison to another person
that is considered average. Some of the abilities measured included types of writing, organization
and cognitive thinking. The results indicated that the students actually scored average or below
average, depending on how easy or difficult the ability was. However, Kim, Kwon and Chiu still
interpret the better-than-average effect as a self-enhancement mechanism, because the results
show that the participants interpret the word “average” differently. therefore each ability,
whether easy or difficult, scored medium or a little below medium (Kim, Kwon & Chiu, 2017).
There were three findings that supported this theory to be a form of self-enhancement. First,
Kim, Kwon and Chiu find that the participants in each group define the the word “average” as a
below medium score. One example that was used is when someone criticizes a professor to be
just an average teacher. Due to this, most participants only scored below-medium, but in their
minds, they believe that is a true definition of “average.” The next factor is how the participants
rated the task itself. For instance, if the task given seemed easy, this boosted their self-esteem,
scoring close to average. Lastly, Kim, Kwon and Chiu examined the gender differences (even
though this was no intention to do so) and how most men in the study scored slightly higher than
average on the science based abilities/skills.
The better-than-average effect also has been implied into the Implicit Association Test
(IAT). The IAT measures on association between two things (Kassin, Fein & Markus, 2016). In
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other words, this test will view how an individual will quickly affiliate two ideas and this
measure will determine how one is thinking in an unconscious way (Kassin, Fein & Markus,
2016, p. 163). Howald and Ratliff (2016) experiment two types of studies where participants will
be using the IAT to determine stereotyping and prejudice. The first study included adult
participants taking the IAT with the category, thin people vs. fat people (Howald & Ratliff,
2016). In order to test this theory, Howald and Ratliff changed the wording in the questions, so
the participants would answer preferences on an individual perspective and the world’s
perspective. For example, the participants answered in a way to make themselves seem as they
are not discriminating in any type of way compared to the average population. When asked what
the world prefers, the majority answered that the world prefered thin people, and the individual’s
answered that they preferred thin people and fat people equally (Howald & Ratliff, 2016).
The second study shows the similar situation, but with other IAT tests including
stereotyping (Howald & Ratliff, 2016). One thing that was added was an agree to disagree
question regards on how their thoughts were affected based on the topics of the IAT (Howald &
Ratliff, 2016). This resulted that many participants showed a slight significance in offense, which
shows how well the better-than-average theory was implied due to the results from the IAT being
neutral and showing stereotype behavior.
Serving belief is another form of how one’s self-esteem can boost, because a person will
attribute a scenario to favor themselves based on behavior or cognitive thinking. Self-serving
beliefs may have a positive and negative factor. Both factors will figure out ways to explain how
this is benefitting the self. There have been a few studies proving how self-serving beliefs look
like (Palmeira, Spassova & Keh, 2015, p. 90). The studies included the participants
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(decision-makers) opinions based on whether or not advisors are offering good or bad advice,
and being questioned who has been more responsible to taking the advice in effect (Palmeira,
Spassova & Keh, 2015). This has been observed by surveying both groups on questionnaires in
relation to how knowledgeable they may feel (Palmeira, Spassova & Keh, 2015). The results turn
out that the decision makers felt that the advisors overall gave positive advice which lead to
positive outcomes in the questionnaires, which gained the decision makers a positive self-serving
belief in themself, although (Palmeir, Spassova & Keh, 2015). The reason is due to the
trustworthiness in advisors which creates a boost in self-enhancement.
Another mechanism of self-enhancement that people often subconsciously partake in is
the downward social comparison. Downward social comparison is defined as the defensive
tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are (Kassin, Fein &
Markus, 2016). More often than not, downward social comparison is commonly used in all
aspects of our everyday life occurring in school, work, volunteer organizations, and many more.
Comparing ourselves to others could potentially harm us or encourage us to be and do better;
however, researchers demonstrated that in particular, downward social comparison uplifts
people’s mood and shifts their perspective in life (p.93).
Social Comparison on Facebook: Motivation, affective consequences, self-esteem, and
Facebook fatigue by Cramer, Song, and Drent focuses on research examining individuals who
constantly and consistently participate in using social media. Currently, millennials and future
generations are absorbing Facebook content as soon as they wake up in the morning. Without
even realizing it, they are developing their own self-assessments in comparison to their peers
who may seem more successful than they are. Facebook users are able to share their life with
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others by updating their status, post pictures and videos that they may or may not spend time
editing, and comments.
Recent research showed that self-esteem is negatively correlated with the time spent on
Facebook and other social media activity such as Instagram, SnapChat, or even Twitter (Cramer
et. al, 2016). People only spend time posting exciting events or successes on their social media -
hiking, traveling, graduating, job promotion, milestones (getting married, buying a car, or a
home). People post what they want to post and they want others to know, and more often times
than not, to think, that their life is incredible, and they are not struggling. In a sense, individuals
already know what they see on social media may not always be the true predicament of that
person’s life or character. However, they are still affected by it and is negatively comparing
themselves to others. Helgeson and Mickelson’s (1995) functional approach model was used in
this research which focused on motives rather than social comparisons (upward and downward)
(Cramer, Song & Drent, 2016). When people realized that they are comparing themselves to
others who are in a less fortunate situation than they are, they use it as a learning lesson - to not
make the same mistakes they did.
In terms of social comparison regarding individuals with higher self-esteems (HSEs),
they are more prone to partake in downward social comparison (self-enhancement) compared to
those with lower self-esteems (Cramer, Song, & Drent, 2016). Researchers collected data of
participants using a Likert Scale, asking them questions such as, “Do you compare yourself to
others on Facebook”? In addition to those questions, researchers also conducted a social
comparison perception test, motivates for social comparison, facebook fatigue test, self-esteem,
and positive affect using the Likert Scale which ranges in values from 1-5 (Cramer et. al, 2016).
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Results show that some people may have a higher preference of using Facebook less to increase
their self-esteem instead of participating in social comparisons.
Social media may be a negative influence in our lives - affecting us emotionally and
psychologically. The previous article focuses on downward social comparison in relation to
social media activity. Relationship social comparison interpretations and dating relationship
quality, behaviors, and mood by Marian Morry and Tamara Sucharyna focuses on social
comparison in dating relationships. When individuals choose their partners, most already have a
high standard that he/she would have to meet. They would have to fulfill the “lists” that would
make them a great partner. People often compare their own relationships in relation to their
friend’s relationship with their partners. Focusing on downward social comparison, individuals
may overprioritze or overexemply their own relationship in order to make themselves feel better
about what they may be going through. Morry and Tamara states that social comparisons are one
source of information individuals use to make sense of their relationships (p. 554).
After an upward or downward social comparison, people must interpret what they want to
do with their relationship - hope for the future or realizing that their relationship is not going
anywhere. Researchers created a Relationship Social Comparison Interpretation Scale (RSCI) to
further understand the interpretations and correlations with relationship quality, self-reported
behaviors, and mood (Morry and Tamara, 2016). According to the article, people only partake in
any form of social comparison when they are unsure, stressed, or unsatisfied with their current
relationship. Participants (N = 206) around the age of 21 years old who are in a relationship with
their partner for at least 37 months were randomly assigned to make an upward or downward
social comparison to their friend’s relationships. Qualtrics, an online assessment, collected the
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participant’s results. Using these results to differentiate between secure and insecure individuals,
people interpret their comparisons differently depending on the social contexts. The three self
enhancement techniques: better-than-average effect, self-serving beliefs, and downward social
comparison are a few of the many ways individuals are influenced to change in behavior. Studies
have been proven how effective these techniques work. One thing to come to mind is how this
may work both consciously and unconsciously, in order to help enhance or maintain self-esteem.
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References
Cramer, E. M., Song, H., & Drent, A. M. (2016). Social comparison on Facebook: Motivation,
affective consequences, self-esteem, and Facebook fatigue. Computers in Human
Behavior, 64739-746. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.049
Fein, S., Kassin, S., Markus, H.R. (2017). Social Psychology. Cengage Learning. (p.88-93).
Howel, J. L., Ratliff, K. A. (2016). Not your average bigot: the better-than-average effect and
defense responding to implicit association test feedback. British Journal of Social
Psychology, 56(1), 125-145. Doi: 10.1111/bjso.12168
Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA:
Cengage Learning.
Kim, Y-H., Kwon, H., Chiu, C-Y. (2017). The better-than-average effect is observed because
“average” is often construed as below-medium ability. US National Library of Medicine,
8, 898, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00898
Mory, M. M., & Sucharyna, T. A. (2016). Relationship social comparison interpretations and
dating relationship quality, behaviors, and mood. Personal Relationships, 23 (3),
554-576. doi: 10.1111/pere.12143
Palmeira, M., Spassova, G., Keh, H. T. (2015). Other-serving bias in advice taking: when
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advisors receive more credit than blame. Organizational Behavior and Human decision
processes, 130, 13-25.