discussion
3.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
Chapter 1 explained that researchers generally take one of two broad approaches to answering their research questions. Quantitative research is a systematic and empirical approach that attempts to generalize results to other contexts, whereas qualitative research is a more descriptive approach that attempts to gain a deep understanding of particular cases and contexts. Before we discuss specific examples of descriptive designs, it is important to understand that these can represent either quantitative or qualitative perspectives. This section contrasts the two approaches in more detail.
Chapter 1 used the analogy of studying traffic patterns to contrast qualitative and quantitative methods—a qualitative researcher would likely study a single busy intersection in detail. This example illustrates a key point about this approach: Qualitative researchers are focused on interpreting and making sense out of what they observe rather than trying to simplify and quantify these observations. In general, qualitative research involves a collection of interviews and observations made in a natural setting. Regardless of the overall approach (qualitative or quantitative), data collection in the real world results in less control and structure than it does in a laboratory setting. But whereas quantitative researchers might view reduced control as a threat to reliability and validity, qualitative researchers view it as a strength of the study. Conducting observations in a natural setting makes it possible to capture people’s natural and unfiltered responses.
As an example, consider two studies of the ways people respond to traumatic events. In a 1993 paper, psychologists James Pennebaker and Kent Harber took a quantitative approach to examining the community-wide impact of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake (near San Francisco). These researchers conducted phone surveys of 789 area residents, asking people to indicate, using a 10-point scale, how often they “thought about” and “talked about” the earthquake during the three-month period after its occurrence. In analyzing these data, Pennebaker and Harber discovered that people tend to stop talking about traumatic events about two weeks after they occurred but keep thinking about the event for approximately four more weeks. That is, the event is still on people’s minds, but they decide to stop discussing it with other people. In a follow-up study using the 1991 Gulf War, the same researchers found that this conflict leads to an increased risk of illness, measured via an increase in visits to the doctor (Pennebaker & Harber, 1993). The goal of the study was to gather data in a controlled manner and test a set of hypotheses about community responses to trauma.
Contrast Pennebaker and Harber’s approach with the more qualitative one taken by the developmental psychologist Paul Miller and colleagues (2012), who used a qualitative approach to study the ways that parents model coping behavior for their children. These researchers conducted semistructured interviews of 24 parents whose families had been evacuated following the 2007 wildfires in San Diego County and an additional 32 parents whose families had been evacuated following a 2008 series of deadly tornadoes in Tennessee. Because of a lack of prior research on how parents teach their children to cope with trauma, Miller and colleagues approached their interviews with the goal of “documenting and describing” (p. 8) these processes. That is, rather than attempt to impose structure and test a strict hypothesis, the researchers focused on learning from these interviews and letting the interviewees’ perspectives drive the acquisition of knowledge.
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Paul Miller’s research, which involved a series of semi-structured, qualitative interviews, attempted to document and describe a phenomenon rather than test a theory.
Qualitative and quantitative methods also differ quite strikingly in how they approach analyses of the data. Because all quantitative methods have the goal of discovering findings that can be generalized—that apply across different contexts—all quantitative studies must translate phenomena into numerical values and conduct statistical analyses. So, for example, Pennebaker and Harber’s (1993) study of coping with trauma measured the concrete value of “visits to the doctor,” and then compared changes in this number over time. In contrast, because qualitative methods have the goal of learning and interpreting phenomena from the ground up, qualitative studies focus on discovering the underlying meaning of phenomena in their own right. So, for example, Miller and colleagues’ 2012 study of coping focused on “documenting and describing” the ways that parents teach children to cope and learning from a critical evaluation of the interview content. At risk of oversimplifying: Quantitative methods gloss over some of the richness of experience in order to discover knowledge that can be generalized, while qualitative methods sacrifice the ability to generalize in order to capture the richness of experience.
As one final example of this contrast, consider the way that each approach would analyze the content of an interview. Interviewing people can be a very effective way to understand their experiences and can form the basis for many of the descriptive designs we cover in this chapter. A qualitative researcher would likely conduct a smaller number of interviews (perhaps only one, for a case study), due to the time required for analysis. The researcher would read each interview in depth and then start to identify themes that appeared across the entire set. These themes would serve as the basis for understanding people’s experiences. (For an excellent deep dive into different theoretical approaches to interview analysis, see Smith [2008].) By comparison, a quantitative researcher would conduct a larger number of interviews, because quantitative text analysis can be very fast. Rather than read each interview, the researcher could input the text of these interviews into a software program, which could count and categorize the overall sentiment of the language people used. These counts and categories would then serve as the basis for quantifying people’s experiences on a larger scale.
The following three sections examine three specific examples of descriptive designs—case studies, archival research, and observational research. Because each of these methods has the goal of describing attitudes, feelings, and behaviors, each one can be used from either a quantitative or a qualitative perspective. In other words, qualitative and quantitative researchers use many of the same general methods but do so with different goals. To illustrate this flexibility, each section concludes with a paragraph that contrasts qualitative and quantitative uses of the particular method.