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After completing this article, readers should be able to: n Define emotional intelligence (EI) and explain how it is measured. n Trace the history and development of EI. n Compare different concepts of EI. n Describe characteristics of emotionally intelligent people. n Discuss the importance of EI and suggest ways to increase it. n Summarize research studies on EI in health care students and professionals.
Emotional intelligence (EI), the ability to understand and manage emotions in oneself and others, is a valu- able asset for health care professionals. This article discusses the emergence of EI, different notions about what constitutes EI, what EI looks like on the job, and simple ways to boost EI. Results of research studies examining EI in health care students and professionals also are reported.
This article is a Directed Reading. This article meets Category A and Medical Dosimetrist Certification Board CE requirements. Your access to Directed Reading quizzes for continuing education credit is determined by your CE preference. For access to other quizzes, go to www.asrt.org /store.
KATHRYN FAGuY, MA, ELS
Emotional Intelligence in Health Care
“That man is disciplined and happy who can prevail over the turmoil that springs from desire and anger.”
– Bhagavad Gita, ancient Hindu text
“Rule your feelings, lest your feelings rule you.”
– Publilius Syrus, first century BCE
A t first glance, “emotional intelligence” might seem like a contradiction in terms. After all, intense emotions sometimes inter-
fere with intelligent behavior, such as when we blurt out a comment in the heat of the moment that in retrospect would have been better left unsaid or act on strong feelings without thinking through the consequences. Indeed, as the founding fathers of the emotional intelligence movement pointed out, emotion is sometimes considered a loss of cerebral control.1
On the other hand, emotions are also a key motivation for action and serve as a valuable guide to success and happiness. As psychologist Harvey Deutschendorf wrote, instead of tuning
out our emotions, “we need to get more in touch with them. To live an authen- tic, rewarding, and self-fulfilling life requires that we make use of both our intellect and feelings.”2 Paying atten- tion to emotions, understanding them, and using them wisely can help us lead better lives, both personally and profes- sionally. This, in a nutshell, is emotional intelligence (EI).
Defining Emotional Intelligence
Broadly understood, intelligence is “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.”1 Today, the concept of intelligence includes verbal intelligence, visual/spatial intelligence, social intel- ligence, and, most recently, emotional intelligence.
Perhaps because it is still an evolv- ing concept, EI researchers have defined the term in a variety of ways. In their groundbreaking 1990 article, Salovey and Mayer defined EI as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor
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A Brief History of EI The notion that there are different kinds of intel-
ligence was first proposed by EL Thorndike in 1920. Thorndike divided intelligence into 3 types: abstract intelligence (understanding of ideas), mechanical intel- ligence (understanding of objects), and social intelli- gence (understanding of people).9 As he explained: “By social intelligence is meant the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls — to act wisely in human relations.”9 Another social scientist expanded and refined Thorndike’s definition in the 1930s, describing social intelligence as “the ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters, … as well as insight into the temporary moods or underlying per- sonality traits of strangers.”9
Social intelligence is somewhat different from EI in that social intelligence focuses on relationships gener- ally, whereas EI is concerned with understanding one’s own emotions as well as those of others, and how emo- tions affect relationships. Thus, EI can be considered an aspect or subset of social intelligence.1
In 1940, David Wechsler, a pioneer in the field of intelligence testing, suggested including “non-intellective aspects” of general intelligence, such as social intelligence, in intelligence quotient (IQ) testing. However, Wechsler’s suggestion was ignored10 and it was years before tests were developed to assess other kinds of intelligence.
The first definitive use of the term “emotional intel- ligence” is believed to be in a doctoral dissertation by Wayne Payne in 1968. However, Payne’s theory was never published. In 1983, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed 7 different types of intelligence, including knowing one’s inner world and social adeptness.4 Those 2 notions together come close to capturing EI as it is currently understood.
The seminal work on EI was an article by Peter Salovey of Yale University and John D Mayer of the University of New Hampshire published in 1990 in the journal Imagination, Cognition and Personality. Their article, titled simply “Emotional Intelligence,” laid the groundwork for all subsequent research and thinking on EI.
Daniel Goleman, a clinical psychologist and contrib- uting writer for The New York Times, read Salovey and Mayer’s article while researching his book about emo- tional literacy. Goleman subsequently titled his book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. It was published in 1995 and became a bestseller, help- ing to popularize EI. Time magazine featured a cover
one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to dis- criminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.”1 In 1997 they refined their original definition3:
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the abil- ity to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth.
Goleman’s definition additionally mentions EI’s role in self-motivation4: “Emotional intelligence refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.” Bradberry and Greaves, like Goleman, emphasized EI’s role in shaping behavior5: “EI is your ability to recog- nize and understand emotions in yourself and others, and your ability to use this awareness to manage your behavior and relationships.” Finally, for Meyer et al, EI focuses on the perception and analysis of emotion. According to them, EI includes the ability to identify and express emotions, distinguish among emotions, and analyze and regulate emotions.6
Although different researchers define EI differently, some key points are agreed upon7:
n EI is different from, but related to, other types of intelligence. For example, cognitive intelligence is based in the brain’s neocortex; emotion is based in the lower, more ancient subcortex. EI involves both parts of the brain working together.4
n EI varies among individuals. Some people are naturally more emotionally intelligent than others.
n EI can be learned and developed throughout life. n In essence, EI is the ability to perceive, identify,
understand, and manage emotions. There is also consensus about what EI is not.8 It isn’t: n The same as “being nice” to other people. In fact,
EI sometimes requires saying difficult or uncom- fortable things.
n The same as freely expressing emotions. Instead, it entails managing one’s feelings and expressing them appropriately and for specific purposes.
n Genetically fixed. “Although some people are naturally more emotionally intelligent than others, a high EQ [one’s emotional intelligence quotient] can be developed even if you aren’t born with it.”5 And EI can be improved by anyone, at any stage in life.
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Appraising and expressing emotions, both one’s own and those of others, requires skill at interpreting a vari- ety of verbal and nonverbal information. For instance, we must interpret the unspoken message in someone’s facial expression, tone of voice, and body language, as well as the words they choose. A good understanding of one’s own emotions is key to understanding others’ emotions; in fact, the 2 processes are so closely related that they “may not exist without the other.”1 Some people cannot appraise or express their own emotions; this psychiatric disorder is termed alexithymia and may be due to blockages between the brain’s hemispheres or between the limbic system and the higher cortical activities. Different tools are used to measure individu- als’ ability to express their emotions and their skill at “reading” others’ emotions. For example, the Affect Sensitivity Test involves showing videotaped scenes of individuals interacting with each other; participants then describe how the people in the video are feeling and what they might be thinking.1
Regulating or managing emotion is something we all do, but the emotionally intelligent person does espe- cially well and has a way of meeting particular goals, Salovey and Mayer noted. For example, an emotionally intelligent speaker can evoke a strong reaction from an audience; an emotionally intelligent job candidate can leave an interviewer with a positive impression.
story on the topic later that year and Goleman was a guest on Oprah Winfrey’s television show. In 1998, the Harvard Business Review featured an article on EI that became the most-read article published in the journal in the previous 40 years.11
Several tools have been developed to screen for and measure EI, and there are now countless EI training programs, books, and seminars. Since EI became a hot topic, “there has been plenty of excitement, confusion, and raised eyebrows with respect to emotional intelli- gence in general and, more specifically, EI and its value as a corporate training objective.”11 Some may dismiss EI as a passing psychological fad or management trend, but Freshman and Rubino argued that it is in fact “a useful approach of applying age-old wisdom to personal and organizational development.” Furthermore, “What is new and promising about the work being done with EI is that now these competencies are being viewed as skills to be developed,” rather than in-born traits.11
The Components of EI Just as definitions of EI vary, so too do the ways in
which different researchers and theorists have con- ceived of EI. In their foundational 1990 article, Salovey and Mayer envisioned EI as composed of 3 related men- tal processes: appraising and expressing emotion, regu- lating emotion, and using emotion (see Figure 1).1
Regulation of Emotion
Self
Verbal Non- Verbal
Perception
Non- Verbal
Empathy
In SelfOther In Other Flexible Planning
Creative Thinking
Redirected Attention
Motivation
Emotional Intelligence
Appraisal and Expression of
Emotion
Utilization of Emotion
Figure 1. Conceptualization of emotional intelligence. Reprinted with permission from Salovey P, Mayer JD. Emotional intelligence. Imagin Cogn Pers. 1990;9(3):190.
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antisocially may create manipulative scenes or lead others sociopathically to nefarious ends.
In 1997, Salovey and Mayer revised their original conception to reflect 4 branches of EI, from basic to higher levels (see Figure 2).3 Each branch is associated with 4 abilities or traits that support or are related to it. The traits and abilities are described below each branch and generally develop sequentially, from left to right. Perception, appraisal, and expression are a part of the most basic branch of EI and reflect a fundamental abil- ity to identify emotion, including true vs false emotion, as well as the ability to accurately express emotions. The second branch, emotional facilitation of thinking, has to do with the ability to use emotions in one’s thought, such as recalling an emotion clearly. The next branch, understanding and analyzing emotions, reflects a more sophisticated knowledge of emotions and how they operate, such as complex combinations of emotions and emotional transitions. Finally, the fourth branch relates to the ability to regulate emotions, such as “detaching” from emotions that are not immediately useful.3
Emotionally intelligent people also are adept at chang- ing or sustaining their own moods.1
EI has many different uses, Salovey and Mayer postulated. Individuals with high EI “may be more creative and flexible in arriving at possible alterna- tives to problems. They are also more apt to integrate emotional considerations when choosing among alter- natives. Such an approach will lead to behavior that is considerate and respectful of the internal experience of themselves and others.”1 In addition, EI can help people plan more flexibly because changing moods allow them to see a variety of different outcomes. EI also can assist with motivation and redirecting atten- tion to pressing problems.1
Interestingly, Salovey and Mayer pointed out that EI can be used for bad as well as good purposes1:
On the positive side [emotionally intelligent people] may enhance their own and others’ moods and even manage emotions so as to motivate oth- ers charismatically toward a worthwhile end. On the negative side, those whose skills are channeled
Figure 2. Revised conceptualization of emotional intelligence. Reprinted with permission from Mayer JD, Salovey P. What is emotional intelligence? In: Salovey P, Sluyter DJ, eds. Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1997.
Emotional Intelligence
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Goleman modified the original theory proposed by Salovey and Mayer, proposing instead the following 5 EI “competencies”12:
n Self-awareness: Understanding one’s own emo- tions and abilities.
n Self-regulation: Managing one’s emotions well. n Motivation: Using one’s preferences to stay
focused on goals and cope with setbacks. n Empathy: Being sensitive to and aware of others’
feelings. n Social Skills: Using sensitivity to emotions to
interact effectively with others (eg, to lead, moti- vate, or resolve disagreements).
In their book Emotional Intelligence 2.0, Bradberry and Greaves broke the skills underlying EI into 2 main areas of competence: personal competence and social competence. The 2 skills that make up personal com- petence are self-awareness and self-management. The 2 skills that compose social competence are social aware- ness and relationship management.13
Reuven Bar-On, developer of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory, based his conception of EI and his assessment tool on 5 scales: intrapersonal, interperson- al, adaptability, stress management, and general mood. Each of the scales has multiple subscales (see Table).14
Wagner et al summarized the diversity of views on what exactly constitutes EI by noting that “theorists’ conceptualizations of EI vary, yet most agree that EI describes characteristics beyond technical skill and tra- ditional cognitive intelligence, including factors such as awareness of and ability to modulate one’s own emo- tional responses and to understand others.”14
Measuring Emotional Intelligence As mentioned previously, there are several tools for
assessing EI. These include a self-assessment known as the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) distributed by Multi-Health Systems (Toronto, Canada); an ability- based test designed by Salovey, Mayer, and their col- league David Caruso called the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) and Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Competency Index, among others.7
The Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale (SEIS) is based on Salovey and Mayer’s early conceptual model. It is a self-reporting assessment that includes 33 items with Likert-scale responses. Scores range from 33 to 165, with higher scores indicating higher EI. The reli- ability and validity of the SEIS are well established.15
The EQ-i includes 133 items that describe “emo- tional functioning.” As with the SEIS, respondents
rate themselves on a 5-point Likert scale. The EQ-i was based (normed) on 4000 North American respon- dents. Most were white and younger than 30 years of age, with men and women equally represented.16 There is a shortened version of the EQ-i with 52 items and a version designed for children aged 7 to 15 years. The tool has been translated into more than a dozen languages for use in Europe and Israel.16 The stability, reliability, and validity of the assessment have all been tested and reported.16
The Emotional Competence Inventory, developed by Goleman and colleague Richard Boyzatis, is a 360-degree instrument that relies on others’ assess- ments of an individual’s EI. For example, peers, super- visors, and direct reports might all be asked to rate an employee’s EI using this tool.11
A major criticism of EI assessment revolves around the fact that some of the tools are based on self- reporting, which might not be accurate for a variety of reasons. Some people intentionally misrepresent themselves on self-assessments to make themselves look good. (However, some EI assessments are designed to flag evaluations in which an individual might be trying to skew the results.) Other people simply aren’t emo- tionally aware enough to report on themselves accu- rately. Furthermore, some individuals may be unduly critical in assessing themselves; other people are inac- curately generous in their self-ratings.
Likewise, evaluations by others may not be accu- rate, either. Friends may paint an inaccurately positive picture of each other, while other people might use an EI evaluation to retaliate against coworkers as part of office politics. Also, employees might be hesitant to be critical of their supervisors or others in positions of power. Reports and assessments from multiple sources might be more accurate than a single source.17 Or, they might simply confuse the picture further.
While conducting research for this article, I discov- ered that it is fairly easy to skew the results of an EI assessment. I took an online self-reporting assessment, the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal offered by Talent Smart (San Diego, California), twice within a period of a few days. This short assessment takes 7 minutes to complete, on average.16 The first time I took it, I tried to be candid about my true tendencies and not “overthink” my responses. I scored poorly, in the bottom 20% of the population overall. The second time I took the appraisal, I responded with what seemed to be the “right” answers (ie, the ones associated with high EI). My score soared to the top 3%. I did not complete any EI training or make
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any effort to increase my EI in the interim, beyond doing some general reading on the subject.
Other EI assessment tools do not rely on self- reporting or evaluation by colleagues. One of these is the MSCEIT, an ability-based test that reportedly mea- sures “a person’s capacity for reasoning with emotion- al information.”18 The MSCEIT was based (normed) on 5000 respondents worldwide, mostly white women younger than 30 years of age.16 This test takes 30 to 45 minutes to administer and is designed for adults aged 17 and older. Test takers perform a variety of tasks, such as rating the “extent and type of emotion”
depicted in pictures and choosing techniques for effectively managing their own and others’ emotions.16 “Because the MSCEIT is an ability-based measure, it is very difficult for respondents to ‘fake’ a good per- formance. As such, the MSCEIT is ideal for testing in situations in which it is expected that respondents will want to create a positive impression.”18
Unlike IQ, which is fairly stable from childhood on, EI tends to increase steadily from the late teens until the 40s, when it peaks. After age 50, EI begins to taper off, but only slightly.10 These conclusions were based on a study of 4000 people in the United States and
Table Emotional Quotient Inventory Subscales and Descriptions
Composite Scale Subscale Description
Intrapersonal Self-regard Self-respect and acceptance Good self-esteem, feel positive about themselves
Emotional self-awareness In touch with their feelings Understand what and why they feel what they do
Assertiveness Ability to express feelings, thoughts, and beliefs in a nondestructive manner
Independence Self-reliant and independent in thinking and actions
Self-actualization Ability to realize one’s full potential Live rich and meaningful lives
Interpersonal Empathy Aware of and appreciates the feelings of others
Social responsibility Cooperating and contributing members of social groups
Interpersonal relationships Ability to establish and maintain relationships with others and give and receive affection
Adaptability Reality testing Realistic, well grounded Good at sizing up the situation
Flexibility Able to adjust their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors according to the changing environment
Problem solving Adept at recognizing problems and generating solutions
Stress management Stress tolerance Can cope with stress actively and positively Calm and rarely anxious
Impulse control Able to resist or delay impulses Rarely impatient
General mood Optimism Look at the bright side of life
Happiness Feel satisfied with their lives, genuinely enjoying other people Happy and pleasant
Reprinted with permission from Wagner PJ, Moseley GC, Grant MM, Gore JR, Owens C. Physicians’ emotional intelligence and patient satisfaction. Fam Med. 2002;34(10):751. Based on Bar-On R. Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory, Facilitator’s Resource Manual. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems Inc; 1998:2.
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Canada. However, as mentioned previously, it is pos- sible to increase EI during every decade of life.19
It is also interesting to note that there is no cor- relation between IQ and EI. As Goleman pointed out, almost everyone knows someone with a high IQ whose success in life doesn’t match his or her IQ score, per- haps because that person lacked in EI.12 On the other hand, high achievers often have both high EI and high IQs. Goleman speculated that the relationship between EI and IQ works this way: IQ determines which occu- pations are open to individuals, while EI determines which individuals excel in the jobs they choose.16
As a group, women are no more emotionally intel- ligent than men, even though women are generally considered to be more sensitive and emotionally expressive than men. Every individual has a unique set of strengths and weaknesses when it comes to EI, and the strengths of one sex tend to balance those of the opposite sex.8 As Deutschendorf explained20:
When we add up male/female profiles, we find that women on the whole are more aware of their emotions and are better at forming relationships with others while men adapt more easily and handle stress better. However, it is important to remember that this finding does not account for individual variations where these differences could be reversed. There are men who are very aware of their emotions and are able to form strong relationships, just as there are women who adapt easily and are good at handling stress.
Nor does one race or ethnicity score significantly better than others on EI assessments. In a study of 1000 North Americans, average differences in scores by race/ ethnicity were less than 5%, a difference that could be attributable to chance alone.21 In this study, African Americans scored slightly higher than other groups, fol- lowed by Hispanics, Caucasians, and Asians.21
Bradberry and Greaves profiled people high and low in EI from a variety of different walks of life. Several common characteristics emerged from their descrip- tions (see Box 1).13
Goleman discussed a worrisome trend among American children. Tests of EI in groups of children con- ducted 15 years apart showed that children’s EI is declin- ing. On average, kids are more anxious, depressed, angry, and lonely than they were just a decade and a half earlier, and are less able to cope with their feelings.19 Goleman emphasized the role of parents as their children’s first emotional coaches and role models, and suggested that EI training in the schools also can help reverse this decline.19
Box 1 Common EI Characteristics13
Highly self-aware people tend to be: • Calm, cool, and collected. • Honest about their feelings. • Open and authentic. • “Up-front” and don’t play mind games.
Those low in self-awareness may: • Project stress and urgency. • Be defensive, aggressive, or demanding. • Fail to notice how they affect others. • Talk over others.
Individuals with good self-management skills are likely to be: • Patient and understanding. • Sensitive but direct. • Able to think on their feet. • Good at handling stress. • Polite and professional regardless of circumstances.
Those who lack self-management skills tend to: • Respond too quickly or sharply. • Panic. • Be prone to verbal outbursts. • Share their negative emotions with others too much. • Display their stress in front of others.
People with high social awareness typically: • “Read” others’ emotions well. • Acknowledge others’ feelings. • Make an effort to get to know others personally. • Listen respectfully. • Show sincere interest in others. • Put others at ease. • Motivate people.
A person with little social awareness may be: • Impatient while others are expressing their ideas. • Inattentive to others. • Disinclined to socialize. • Inflexible. • Caught up in his or her own thoughts.
Individuals who are good at relationship management often: • Excel at listening. • Know how to make others feel better, even when
they’ve made an error. • Are nonjudgmental. • Praise and encourage others, when appropriate. • Make others feel as though they have been heard
and understood. Those who struggle with relationship management may:
• Make others feel discounted or minimized. • Dismiss others’ ideas. • Not try to get to know people better.
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concluded, “emotional competencies were twice as important in contributing to excellence as were pure intellect and expertise.”24
Emotional Intelligence and Health Care Professionals
The health care industry has been somewhat slow to embrace EI and incorporate it into educational and training programs.11 Freshman and Rubino speculated this might be due to the fact that health care profes- sionals do not believe they need to improve their EI skills because they are caring people who were drawn to the health care field in the first place because of their compassion.11 Yet research indicates that EI varies among health care professionals, just as it does in the population as a whole. And higher EI has many bene- fits for health care professionals, students in the health care profession, and the patients they care for.
According to Bradberry and Greaves, “EQ is so criti- cal to success that it accounts for 58% of performance in all types of jobs” and is “the single biggest predictor of performance in the workplace.”5 Furthermore, for every 1-point increase in EI, individuals earn on aver- age an additional $1300 per year, they noted.5
Goleman discussed physicians and their interaction with patients, reporting that25:
Physicians who are better at recognizing emo- tions in their patients are more successful in treating them than their less sensitive colleagues. Physicians, of course, need to sense the anxiety and discomfort of their patients so they can treat them effectively, but a study found how rarely they listen. Patients usually had an average of 4 ques- tions in mind to ask, but during the visits they were able to ask just 1 or 2. Once a patient started speaking, the first interruption by the physician occurred, on average, within 18 seconds.
Physicians who don’t listen well are sued more often than peers who communicate better with patients, Goleman added. Good communicators take time to “tell patients what to expect from a treatment, to laugh and joke, to ask the patients’ opinion and check their understanding, and to encourage patients to talk.”25 Furthermore, Goleman pointed out that it took just 3 minutes for a physician to demonstrate his or her empathy with a patient.25
On the other hand, it takes only seconds for a physi- cian or other health care provider to demonstrate that he or she is not empathetic. Goleman related the story of a friend who consulted a physician about treatment
Why Is Emotional Intelligence Important? Proponents of EI maintain it has important associa-
tions with health, happiness, and well-being. For exam- ple, a meta-analysis by Schutte et al involving 7898 par- ticipants concluded that EI was associated with better health, including both mental and physical well-being.22 This finding was confirmed by Martins et al in an even larger meta-analysis published in 2010.23 In addition, low EI has been associated with violent behavior, use of street drugs, and delinquency.16
A large body of research has focused on the con- nection between EI and success on the job, and many studies have identified a positive relationship between the 2. Freshman and Rubino summarized some of that research, noting, for example, that:
Rosenthal found that people who could bet- ter identify the emotions of others were also more successful at work and in social settings. Bachman’s study on leadership in the US Navy found warmth, emotional expression, and socia- bility to be key factors in effectiveness. A study of retail chain managers revealed that the ability to handle stress predicted net profits.11
Meyer et al listed several proposed benefits of high EI on the job, including better performance, enhanced ability to cope with job-related tension, improved con- flict resolution, and more effective leadership.6 In addi- tion, studies of excellence on the job have shown that “in general, emotional competencies play a far larger role in superior job performance than do cognitive abilities and technical expertise.”24
Goleman explained there are 2 levels of job com- petence: threshold competencies and distinguishing competencies. Threshold competency includes the min- imum skills needed to perform a job. Distinguishing competencies are the abilities that set “star” performers apart from others. For a radiologic technologist or radi- ologist assistant, threshold competency would include the skills and knowledge needed to pass a certifying examination and demonstrate the mandatory clinical competencies. Distinguishing competencies include the ability to influence others and the drive to improve one’s skills.24
Goleman worked with researchers who assessed employee competence at 40 companies, examining the differences between star performers and average performers. The stars were 27% more likely to score high in terms of cognitive ability than the average group; they were also 53% more likely to score high on emotional competency. “In other words,” Goleman
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For most of the students, EI was relatively stable dur- ing the study period. However, some students showed a change in EI of up to approximately 20%. Among stu- dents who experienced a change, those with increased EI had “a significant decrease in stress and vice versa.”26
Birks et al concluded that EI was “at some level a moderator of stress.” The study was correlational and therefore could not determine the direction of the relationship. However, because EI is more stable than stress, “it might make sense to hypothesize that it is EI that is affecting stress rather than the other way around.”26
“While this study suggests the link between EI and stress may be worth pursuing, much work remains to be done to fully explore the relationships between emotional intelligence and stress in students in various health professions,” the researchers concluded, adding that26:
One limitation of the present study is that it is based on correlational rather than experimental evidence, a limitation inherent in many studies of personal attributes. Further work will be required to determine how EI impacts stress, and also on adaptation or coping and whether interventions may facilitate development of effective strategies.
In particular, the authors suggested repeating the study with more students and different groups of stu- dents to determine how health care students differ from students in other types of programs.26
Pau and colleagues conducted a qualitative study to examine EI in dental students in the United Kingdom and how those students coped with stress related to their education and training.27 They assessed a total of 213 students using the Schutte EI scale to identify the students with the highest and lowest scores. A total of 20 students were recruited for in-person interviews, including the highest and lowest scoring men and women volunteers from each year of the 5-year under- graduate program. Trained interviewers met with each student to discuss whether they had experienced stress recently, what their stress had been like, and how they coped with it. The recorded interviews were analyzed for common themes.27
Almost all of the students reported they had expe- rienced stress recently, and several key differences emerged between the high-EI students and those who scored lowest on EI.27 For example, the high-EI students showed more skill and willingness to use their social support networks as a means of coping with stress, whereas the low-EI students tended to either reject
for a blood clot in her leg. The physician informed Goleman’s friend there was a possibility she might lose her leg because of the clot, and the patient began to cry. The physician then said: “If you’re going to cry, you’ll have to find another doctor.” She did, of course.19
Health Care Students, EI, and Stress Birks et al examined EI and stress in 4 groups
of health care profession students in the United Kingdom: undergraduate dental, nursing, and medi- cal students, and postgraduate mental health care students.26 The aim of the study was to determine whether there were differences between the groups and whether EI “might serve as a buffer for stress.” All of the students were in their first year of professional study. The rationale for focusing on first-year students was that this might help identify those who were high- ly stressed or especially low in EI, and therefore allow early intervention and support.26
Perceived stress levels are reportedly high among health care students and have been connected with depression, drug and alcohol use, anxiety, and attri- tion, Birks et al noted. EI is one factor that may be related to and predictive of stress. Consequently, “Recent calls have been made to include training in emotional intelligence in health care workers as a means of improving leadership qualities, preventing burnout and stress, and improving curricula and com- munication skills.”26
Birks et al administered the Schutte Emotional Intelligence and the Perceived Stress Scale instru- ments. Both are brief, self-reporting scales that use the 5-point Likert response format. Response rates ranged from 62% for dental students to 91% for the nursing students. A total of 147 students completed the assess- ments twice: in the fall of 2005 and summer 2006. Results indicated that EI was relatively stable over time, while stress levels increased between the first evaluation and the second, possibly because the second adminis- tration was close to end-of-year exam time.26
Statistical analysis showed no differences between the groups of students in terms of EI. Nor were age or sex associated with significant EI differences. (Students ranged in age from 18 years to 50 years; women made up the majority of all 4 groups.) Both at the baseline point and at follow-up, higher EI was correlated with lower perceived stress. Interestingly, the authors sug- gested that “while EI might help moderate stress at lower levels, when there is an acute stressor such as end-of-year exams, the effect of EI may be lessened.”26
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The reasons behind this finding are not clear, although the authors pointed out that the degree pro- gram’s curriculum was demanding and instructors in that program had high expectations.15
Overall, “there was a strong negative correlation between EI and perceived stress.” In addition, student nurses with high EI scores also had high perceived competency, Por et al reported.15
The researchers speculated that “students with high EI were able to maintain positive moods lon- ger and generate positive moods even in negative situations.” Redirecting emotions in a positive way may help nursing students remain calm and profes- sional despite the inherent stresses, they conjectured. Unfortunately, they found little emphasis on EI in the nursing curriculum. Technical skills and intellectual understanding are not sufficient for success in a nurs- ing career, and EI should be included in the profes- sional curriculum, they concluded.15
Nurses, EI, and Professional Performance High EI levels also seem to benefit health care pro-
fessionals and their employers. For example, Codier et al studied nurses in a large medical center in Hawaii.28 The study used the MSCEIT to measure EI for 193 clinical staff nurses. The researchers also evaluated subjects in terms of retention, commitment, and per- formance. Measures of retention included years in one’s current job, years in the nursing profession, and anticipated length of career. These researchers found a positive correlation between EI and both performance level and retention.28
In an article about the value of EI for nurse man- agers, Merkey outlined several situations in which managers frequently demonstrate a lack of EI.29 One of these occurs when a nurse develops an adversarial relationship with a physician. “The situation becomes emotionally charged and the nursing leader becomes reactive and defensive,” Merkey wrote. “To make mat- ters worse, the [nurse] decides to involve the staff in the dispute to create even more drama.” Often, the nurse manager becomes entrenched in his or her posi- tion and loses sight of alternatives.29 Obviously, this behavior does not benefit the patients or the health care team.
Merkey also discussed the situation in which a nurse who was recently promoted to a management position lost touch with his or her team because of a personal agenda. The manager’s staff became “disillusioned and disappointed in the new leader.”29 Just a little effort
their social networks or believed they would not be helpful. As a low-EI male student explained, “I don’t tell my friends when I’ve got problems because … I don’t like whinging [sic] about things.” (Whinging is a British term for whining.) A high-scoring female student said, “I have to say my friends help me a lot … because they go through these similar things.”27
Another difference between the high and low scor- ers was in the area of lifestyle choices used to cope with stress. The students with low EI were more likely to engage in self-destructive or risky behavior, while high- EI students tended not to engage in those behaviors and to consider them unhelpful. One female student who scored low in EI reported that when under stress she would “eat more, smoke … go out and get drunk.” A male student who scored low in EI told the interview- er, “… if I’m sort of stressed … I’ll get on my bike and go mad … just going at stupid speeds.” A high-scoring female student, on the other hand, noted that “I used to smoke [but] I don’t find that helps me calm down.”27
Yet another area of difference was in time man- agement and organizational skills. High-EI students tended to be confident in their ability to cope with stress because of their skill in managing time and get- ting organized; the low-EI students were less certain about these areas or tended to blame factors outside their control for difficulty with meeting deadlines and staying organized.27
Because students’ academic progress may be affected if they cannot cope effectively with stress, Pau et al suggested that it is important to monitor students’ emotional well-being, train them in techniques for coping with stress, and revise the curriculum to improve EI.27
Por et al studied 130 nursing students in programs for mature students.15 Half of the students were enrolled in a 3-year diploma program, one-third were in a 3-year degree program and less than one-fifth were in a 2-year accelerated diploma program. The mean age of the participants was 28 years. The study’s aim was to measure EI using the SEIS and assess EI’s relationship to stress, well-being, perceived competency, and academic performance.15
There were significant differences in the EI score, perceived stress, coping strategies, and perceived nursing competency between the participants from the different educational pathways. The diploma students had the highest EI score and the lowest level of perceived stress, whereas the degree students had the lowest EI score and the highest level of perceived stress.
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outdoor ropes and challenge course. This intervention focused on building trust, communication, and team- work. Facilitators led discussions throughout the day to help the participants find meaning in the experience and apply what they had learned to the workplace. The researchers reported there were no statistically signifi- cant changes in EI following the intervention; however, there were small improvements in overall EI.6
The small yet positive improvements in overall EI suggest that health care administrators and providers are able to enhance their interpersonal skills, which creates the potential for a more colle- gial and productive work environment. Similarly, the improvements in understanding emotion may facilitate among employees the empathy or compassion necessary to treat fearful or anxious clients.
The authors offered several possible reasons why the improvements weren’t statistically significant, including the small sample size, above-average EI scores before the intervention, and the fact that the intervention was short and not focused specifically on improving EI.6
EI and the Health Care Team When individuals who work together have high EI,
the team functions better. As Hughes reported, teams with members who had high EI “… felt greater psycho- logical safety with each other, had lower levels of con- flict, made decisions more collaboratively together, and experienced greater team learning.”31 Thus, training work groups in EI could pay off for the group as a whole, as well as for the individuals who make up the team.
Techniques for Improving EI Establishing new patterns of thought and behavior
takes time. Although it is possible to increase one’s self-awareness, ability to manage emotions, empathy, and social skills, it can be a long process and depends on baseline abilities. The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations recommended corporate EI training include 4 phases: preparation, training, transfer/maintenance, and evaluation.11 During the first phase, organizations should assess their needs and readiness to implement an EI program, encourage participation, and adjust expectations. In phase 2, it’s important to build rapport between the trainer and participants, set goals, provide opportu- nities to practice, offer feedback, use modeling, and provide facilitation to help participants gain insight. During phase 3, organizations must encourage the use
at remaining self-aware and managing emotions can make managers more effective and improve the health care work environment, Merkey concluded.29
Physicians, EI, and Patient Satisfaction Stein and Book, in their book The EQ Edge, reported
that EI testing of physicians revealed that they scored lower, as a group, than the population as a whole. Physicians scored highest in stress tolerance and low- est in empathy, happiness, and social responsibility.30 Unfortunately, physician happiness seems to be one component of EI that is associated with patient satisfac- tion, according to a study by Wagner et al.14
Wagner and her colleagues measured EI in 14 fac- ulty members and 16 resident physicians in a family medicine department in the southern United States using the EQ-i. They also measured patient satisfaction in a group of 232 ambulatory patients using an 11-item questionnaire.14
Results showed “only a limited relationship between satisfaction and physicians’ emotional intelligence scores.”14 Only one subscale measured by the EQ-i, “happiness,” proved to be related to patient satisfac- tion. “It is not surprising that a physician’s own hap- piness transmits across the patient-physician relation- ship to increased patient satisfaction with care,” the researchers wrote. What is perplexing is “the elements of EI that describe self-awareness, stress control, emo- tional functioning, and adaptability do not, at least in this limited sample, relate to patient satisfaction.”14 Nevertheless, “If one of the outcomes we want to maximize in the future of health care is patient satis- faction, then helping our learners increase their level of personal happiness and life satisfaction may be the best starting point for EI coaching.”14
Wagner et al suggested medical school courses focused on improving the physician-patient relation- ship would be a good place to incorporate EI in the curriculum. The authors noted limitations of their study such as the small sample size and use of a self- reporting instrument to measure EI.14
Raising EI in a Dental Practice Meyer et al examined whether a 1-day interven-
tion could help improve EI scores among dentists and administrators at a multisite dental practice.6 (No dental hygienists, dental assistants, or other employees were included in the study.) Fifteen people completed the MSCEIT before and after the intervention. The adventure-based training program was an indoor/
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and thinking. We tend not to be tuned in to our emo- tions, although they are always present. Usually, we focus on them only when they are extreme.19 However, most of us would be well-served by paying more atten- tion to our emotions. As Deutschendorf pointed out, “Our feelings do not lie.”2 They are a reliable guide to our fears, desires, and motivations.
“When you are self-aware,” Bradberry and Greaves explained, “you are far more likely to pursue the right opportunities, put your strengths to work, and — per- haps most importantly — keep your emotions from holding you back.”13 Being in tune with our feelings helps us choose projects that use our best talents and are congruent with our values. Self-awareness also ties in with self-control. Without self-awareness, we are vulnerable to being “sidetracked” by our emotions, according to Goleman.32 Self-awareness is also key to helping us deal with stress. Without paying attention to emotions, we can be “surprisingly oblivious to just how stressful our work life really is.”33 Finally, understand- ing our own emotions is the basis for understanding others’ emotions or empathy. These skills are especially critical for people whose jobs involve sensitive matters, such as health care professionals.
Some effective techniques for raising self-awareness include regularly writing in a journal about one’s emotions. Deutschendorf recommended setting aside a few minutes each day to reflect on one’s emotions, re-create them, and record them in a notebook. This helps people learn to better identify their emotions.2 After a few weeks, it may be useful to review what you’ve written to look for patterns: Which emotions predominate? Are any emotions missing? What triggered the emotions?
Bradberry and Greaves offered these suggestions for people who are working to improve awareness of their emotions34:
n Notice your emotions, but don’t judge them. Judging emotions unnecessarily complicates the situation. Emotions are neither good nor bad, and all of them are useful. As Anthony Robbins wrote: “The only way to effectively use your emotions is to understand that they all serve you. You must learn from your emotions and use them to create the results you want … The emotions you once thought of as negative are merely a call to action.”35
n Don’t ignore or dismiss emotions. Feel them fully, even if they are uncomfortable.
n Notice your body’s reactions to emotions, such as changes in breathing, heart rate, perspiration,
of newly learned skills to prevent relapse into old hab- its. The final phase allows for continuous improvement of an EI program through evaluation and feedback.11 Failing to use a well-planned EI training model could be a costly mistake for organizations.11
Goleman and Boyzatis developed a training pro- gram for improving EI over the course of 1 year. The Mastering Emotional Intelligence Program (MEIP) begins with a 2-day workshop designed to help partici- pants develop emotional awareness, both in themselves and others. This is followed later in the year by another 2-day workshop that focuses on the EI competencies participants are weakest in. Each participant receives individual counseling in these areas. The program con- cludes with a 1-day workshop that involves practicing EI behaviors. Throughout the program, participants are encouraged to support each other and offer feedback.16
Assessments taken 14 months apart demonstrat- ed that the MEIP does in fact raise scores on the Emotional Competency Inventory. A group of Brazilian managers who completed the program increased their scores by approximately 14%; a group of government accountants in the United States raised their scores by an average of 24% after completing the training.16
Goleman wrote that simulations, games, and role- playing all can be good methods for developing EI competencies, but they should be “carefully planned, focus on specific competencies that are clearly described to participants, and end with a debriefing of the experience.”17 Computer training is better for learn- ing technical skills than EI, according to Goleman. However, computer-based learning might be helpful for individual practice as part of an overall training program. Online support groups also can be useful for learning EI, but the face-to-face human element is critical: Training must be provided by trainers who are themselves emotionally intelligent.17 Generally speak- ing, a one-size-fits-all approach to EI training is much less effective than a more personalized approach.16
It also is possible to work on building EI indepen- dently, although it’s still useful to seek input from oth- ers. For example, it may be helpful to gather informa- tion from people who know you well and are willing to discuss your strengths and weaknesses, or to work with a mentor who is highly emotionally intelligent.
Self-awareness Self-awareness is at the very core of EI. In essence, it
is knowing what emotions you are feeling, why you are feeling them, and how they affect what you are doing
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some time. You might say something like: “I would like to stop arguing for a little while so I can think more clearly. Then I’d like to get back together with you and talk this thing through.” After the conversation ends, calm yourself with deep breathing and stay occupied with busywork. Come back to the discussion when you are better prepared to handle it. Don’t ignore the situation, hoping it will resolve itself.36
Empathy and Social Awareness Empathy, it is important to note, is not the same
as sympathy. Sympathy is “an inclination to think or feel alike,”38 to share in another’s feelings, to “feel someone’s pain” (or joy, sorrow, etc). Empathy on the other hand is “the ability to see the world from another person’s perspective, the capacity to tune into what someone else might be thinking and feeling about a situation — regardless of how that view might differ from your own perception.”39 When we sympathize with
muscle tension, and posture. Eventually, you can become physically aware of emotions before you are mentally aware of them.
n Recognize what specific situations tend to trigger emotional reactions in you. This will help you control your reactions.
Self-management After building emotional self-awareness, the next step
in becoming more emotionally intelligent is to increase one’s ability to manage emotions. Managing emotions is not the same as suppressing or stifling them. Stifling emotions does not make them disappear, but leaves them to fester. In addition, attempting to suppress emo- tion deprives us of useful information about ourselves. Rather, as psychologist Hendrie Weisinger wrote, manag- ing emotions means understanding them and using that understanding in beneficial ways.36
Weisinger offered this scenario to demonstrate skill- ful and less skilled management of emotions at work: Imagine you have just offered a suggestion at a meeting and your supervisor belittles it in front of the group. An emotionally unintelligent response might be to blow up in anger during the meeting or stew over the situation for days, but not address the matter. An emotionally intelligent response, on the other hand, would be to allow yourself to briefly feel the anger and then begin an internal dialogue. For example, you might say to yourself: “He’s being unreasonable. I will not sink to his level. I will not allow my anger to show. I know my idea is a good one.”36 Notice the physical symptoms of anger, such as a clenched jaw or rapid breathing, and con- sciously relax. If necessary, take a short break from the situation. Later, find a way to address it.36
Many EI experts recommend regularly practicing a relaxation technique, which could be meditation, yoga, aerobic exercise, prayer, walks in nature, long baths, or some other activity that is calming and centering. “Having such a relaxation method in our repertoire does not mean that we won’t feel upset and distressed from time to time. But regular, daily practice of a relax- ation method seems to reset the trigger point for the amygdala (the brain’s emotional center), making it less easily provoked.”33 As a consequence, people who prac- tice relaxation techniques are distressed less often and for shorter periods (see Box 2).33
If you do find yourself involved in a heated exchange with a coworker, supervisor, or someone else at work, Weisinger advises calmly let the other person know you are feeling angry and that you need
Box 2 Additional Suggestions for Improving Self-management19,37
• Practice proper breathing: Take full, deep breaths that expand the abdomen. Keeping the body well oxygenated calms you down.
• When you feel angry or frustrated, count to 10 before you react. This simple, time-tested tip gives the rational mind a chance to catch up with the emotions.
• Give yourself time to think things over. Time brings clarity to emotionally charged situations. If neces- sary, let the other person know you’ll think things over and get back to him or her later.
• Ask for help from someone who manages his or her emotions well. Find out how that person copes with situations that are especially difficult for you.
• Try to limit your negative self-talk or make it more positive. For example, instead of berating yourself for something that went wrong, simply acknowl- edge that you made a mistake.
• Pay attention to the things you can control, rather than the things you can’t.
• Talk over an emotionally challenging situation with someone who is objective about it.
• When you find you’ve reacted out of anger, fear, or some other strong emotion, think about what you might have done differently and resolve to act that way next time.2
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Avoid multitasking and thinking about other things.
n When you are uncertain how others are feeling about a particular situation, ask! Tell the person how you perceive his or her emotions and ask whether you’re correct.
It’s also important to realize how much of emotional communication is unspoken. “Others rarely tell us in words what they feel; instead they tell us in their tone of voice, facial expression, or other nonverbal ways,” Goleman wrote. “Sensing what others feel without their saying so captures the essence of empathy.”25 To prac- tice this skill, try watching a movie or TV show with the volume turned down. Try to gauge the characters’ emo- tions. Then watch again with the volume up to hear how accurate your assessment was.42
As Weisinger did, Goleman emphasized that empa- thy must be sincere, not feigned, or it could backfire. He described a situation in which an industrial plant was scheduled to open near a school. The company’s president told parents he understood their worry over their children’s well-being and the plant would close “if we find anything that might harm the kids.”25 One of the parents questioned the president about some spe- cific risks, and the president quickly became “flustered, defensive, and antagonistic.” Trust was destroyed when it became obvious that the company didn’t truly empa- thize with the parents’ concerns or put children’s safety above profit.25
Sometimes empathy in the workplace should be “tempered” for the good of the organization. This might be the case, for example, when allocating limited resources, Goleman wrote.25 Another concern, espe- cially in the health care workplace is “empathy distress,” in which a health care professional “catches” a patient’s distress and cannot help the patient cope with those feelings. Goleman related the story of a pediatric nurse who wanted a transfer because “I just can’t take holding another little kid who is going to die of cancer. It’s too hard on me.”25 This is a common problem in the help- ing professions; the solution, Goleman wrote, is emo- tional self-management. Health care workers should be careful not to become overwhelmed by the emotions their patients are experiencing.
As mentioned previously, one of the biggest impedi- ments to empathy is failing to manage our own emotions. When we feel angry, overwhelmed or threatened, we’re less able to listen actively and empathize fully with oth- ers.43 Thus, it’s critical to know ourselves and our “emo- tional triggers.”
someone, we “feel for them.” When we empathize with someone, we understand how they are feeling, whether or not we feel the same way. Empathy does not imply a judgment about the validity of someone else’s feelings; it’s simply recognition of those feelings.
Stein pointed out that empathy is “an extremely powerful interpersonal tool” that can forge bonds and help restore harmony.39 “When you make an empathic statement, even in the midst of an otherwise tense or antagonistic encounter, you shift the balance. A conten- tious and uneasy interchange becomes a more collab- orative alliance.”39
Because empathy involves being extremely tuned in to others, it requires first of all that we understand and can manage our own emotions. Without self-awareness and self-control, we are liable to be “hijacked” by our own emotions, and thus unable to pick up on the some- times subtle emotional cues others are sending.25
The most important tool for achieving empathy, according to Goleman, is active listening, which involves paying close attention to what someone else is saying and then asking questions and restating what the other person has said.25 Some other tips for listen- ing actively include using “acknowledgement phrases” to let the other person know you are listening to them, such as saying “I see” or “I’d like to hear more about that.”40 Also use nonverbal cues to convey your interest and attention, such as maintaining eye contact or lean- ing toward the speaker. However, Weisinger warned against following these practices if you are not actually paying attention. Such deception can hamper good communication and trust.40
Deutschendorf recommended these exercises for building empathy41:
n Choose a conversation that you are not involved in and observe it closely. Try to discern each par- ticipant’s feelings about the discussion. Home in on the tones of the voices, facial expressions, and body language.
n Pick someone you are close to and practice really listening to what he or she is saying. Resist the urge to pass judgment or offer advice or sugges- tions. When that person is finished speaking, restate what he or she just said and how you think he or she feels about the subject. Check to see whether you are correct.
Bradberry and Greaves offered these complemen- tary suggestions42:
n When talking to another, focus fully on that person and allow him or her to finish speaking.
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is a prerequisite for success. This is especially true in the health care workplace, where stress is a constant pressure. The good news is that unlike cognitive intel- ligence, EI can be learned and developed. Employers are beginning to recognize the value of increasing EI among staff members and incorporating EI training on the job, and individuals can take steps to improve their EI independently by learning about the subject and practicing suggestions like those discussed in this article. As research into EI continues, we will have bet- ter ways to assess and improve EI, as well as a clearer picture of its many benefits on and off the job.
References 1. Salovey P, Mayer JD. Emotional intelligence. Imagin Cogn
Pers. 1990;9(3):185-211. 2. Deutschendorf H. Emotional self-awareness. In: The Other
Kind of Smart. Simple Ways To Boost Your Emotional Intelligence for Greater Personal Effectiveness and Success. New York, NY: American Management Association; 2009:35-42.
3. Mayer JD, Salovey P. What is emotional intelligence? In: Salovey P, Sluyter D, eds. Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence. Educational Implications. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1997:3-31.
4. Goleman D. Appendix 1. In: Working With Emotional Intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books; 1998:317-318.
5. Bradberry T, Greaves J. The big picture. In: Emotional Intelligence 2.0. TalentSmart: San Diego, CA; 2009:13-22.
6. Meyer BB, Fletcher TB, Parker SJ. Enhancing emotional intelligence in the health care environment: an explor- atory study. Health Care Manag. 2004;23(3):225-234.
7. Ashkanasy NM, Daus CS. Rumors of the death of emo- tional intelligence in organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated. J Organ Behav. 2005;26(4):441-452.
8. Goleman D. The new yardstick. In: Working With Emotional Intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books; 1998:3-14.
9. Kihlstrom JF, Cantor C. Social intelligence. http://socrates .berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/social_intelligence.htm. Accessed March 29, 2011.
10. Stein SJ, Book HE. Exploring emotional intelligence. In: The EQ Edge: Emotional Intelligence and Your Success. Mississauga, ON: John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2006:11-33.
11. Freshman B, Rubino L. Emotional intelligence: a core competency for health care administrators. Health Care Manag. 2002;20(4):1-9.
12. Goleman D. Competencies of the stars. In: Working With Emotional Intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books; 1998:15-29.
13. Bradberry T, Greaves J. What emotional intelligence looks like: understanding the four skills. In: Emotional Intelligence 2.0. San Diego, CA: TalentSmart; 2009:23-50.
14. Wagner PJ, Moseley GC, Grant MM, Gore JR, Owens C.
Managing Relationships Weisinger wrote that all relationships, whether work-
related or personal, have 3 bases: meeting each other’s needs, relating to each other over time, and exchang- ing information about feelings, thoughts, and ideas.44 By paying attention to each of these areas, we can grow new relationships and improve existing ones.
First, every relationship must be reciprocal in that both parties benefit in some way. The task is to find out what the other person’s needs are — through active listening, empathy, or just by asking — and then to meet those needs. For example, radiologic technologists who work together might look to one another for help with moving patients, suggestions for alternative positioning, advice on dealing with a supervisor, or support for ideas on how to improve workflow in the department. Second, relationships must be supported by ongoing contact. This allows the people involved to get to know each other under a variety of circumstances and to build trust and rap- port, which in turn improves the ability to meet each other’s needs and strengthens the relationship. Third, sharing thoughts and feelings deepens the relation- ship, further improves your understanding of each other, and enables you to interact more sensitively and effectively with one another.44
Adele Lynn, an EI consultant, speaker, and author, suggested these steps for improving and managing rela- tionships on the job45:
n When you can, offer your help without being asked.
n Smile, say hello, and greet people by name. Talk about subjects other than those you normally discuss on the job, such as family, friends, or hob- bies. Whenever you speak with someone, try to remember something he or she talked about. Ask about it the next time you meet.
n Encourage coworkers to share their opinions and ideas about work-related matters. Respect their input and give it due consideration.
n When you are involved in a conflict situation, lis- ten actively and seek out common ground. Try to build a solution based on areas of agreement.
n Join and get actively involved in professional organizations.
Conclusion Although it only gained popularity in the 1990s, EI
is based on the ancient idea that understanding and managing emotions, both in ourselves and in others,
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253RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY January/February 2012, Vol. 83/No. 3
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Errata An error occurred in the Directed Reading, “A
Review of Ethics for the Radiologic Technologist,” which appeared in the July/August 2011 issue. The second sentence in the second paragraph on Page 534 should read: “As discussed in Rule 19 of the Rules of Ethics, 2 questions related to ethics are asked as part of the renewal of registration.” The error did not affect the post-test. We thank the reader who brought this error to our attention.
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