Response to Intervention

Educational Research for Policy and Practice (2020) 19:261–279 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-020-09258-6

ORIG INAL ART ICLE

Implementing an RTI approach: a qualitative study of prerequisites and obstacles

Soheila Safari1 · Ahmad Abedi1 · Salar Faramarzi1

Received: 6 July 2018 / Accepted: 7 January 2020 / Published online: 21 January 2020 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020

Abstract Response to Intervention (RTI) is a preventive approach which is broadly implemented in the West, particularly in the USA for early identification and intervention of students with learning difficulties (LD).However, in the East, especially in the developing countries, neither has this kind of program been used extensively, nor is it even a prerequisite in any educational environment. The challenges of implementing this approach in real-life situations have been investigated in the present article, and the prerequisites, obstacles and outcomes of such a program have been taken into consideration. In this qualitative research, information was gathered by various means including semi-structured one-on-one interviews with six school staff members, three parents, informal conversations with a number of students with LD, and monitoring (with note taking) of the conditions and interactions of these students in the school environment. The findings helped shed light on the causal conditions that underlie the bases of Iran’s present educational system; the current situations with which LD students are faced in schools; the necessary strategies and actions for successful implementation of RTI in the country; the factors that can facilitate the needed strategies and actions; and the consequences of the implementation of those strategies. The implications of the findings in educational policy and practice have also been discussed.

Keywords Learning difficulties · Response to intervention · Developing countries · Prerequisites and obstacles

During the past three decades, there has been a considerable increase in the number of children who are eligible for special education and services. Among them, children with specific learning difficulties (LD) form the largest group and, accordingly, this group has become one of the biggest groups and maybe the most challenging category in special education (US Department of Education 2016).

B Ahmad Abedi a.abedi@edu.ui.ac.ir

Soheila Safari soheila.safari83@gmail.com

Salar Faramarzi s.faramarzi@edu.ui.ac.ir

1 Department of Psychology and Education of Children with Special Needs, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Isfahan, Hezarjarib St, Isfahan, Iran

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Although there are no approved official statistics, developing countries are definitely no exception in this respect and it is essential to provide appropriate early interventions for this group of students in these countries. In developed countries, particularly in the USA, this is accomplished through a comprehensive approach called Response to Intervention (RTI) which, in spite of various challenges, hasmany positive outcomes. However, to the best of our knowledge, in developing countries, neither has this kind of program been used extensively so far, nor have the conditions of the educational systems of these countries been investigated for its implementation. The implementation of preventive programs such as RTI in these countries is important since there is a significant relationship between different kinds of disability and social issues such as poverty, low academic achievement and employment rate, and highmedical costs (Mitra et al. 2013). This study aimed at a qualitative examination of the conditions of the educational system of a developing country as regards the implementation of an RTI program from the viewpoint of those involved in the educational process; it also presents a model to illustrate the current conditions, and the required actions for program implementation and its possible outcomes.

1 Learning disabilities: characteristics and identification

Because of deficits in basic psychological processes, individuals with LD encounter a variety of difficulties, which manifest in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, write, spell, or perform mathematical calculations (Kavale et al. 2009). Students with LD are also at higher risk of dropping out of school (Lane et al. 2006), have more adjustment difficulties and show more behavioral problems such as attention deficit and inhibition and conduct disorders (Auerbach et al. 2008) that can lead to legal and judicial issues. Moreover, repeated academic failures gradually create difficulties in social and emotional areas for such students (Freilich and Shechtman 2010) which results in fewer interactions with others and rejection by peers (Estell et al. 2008; Gerber 2012). In addition, they have lower self-efficacy and self- esteem (Klassen and Lynch 2007) and experience a higher level of anxiety and depression and are at greater risk of suicide (Sideridis 2007).

Identification of students with LD has become a controversial subject in the field of special education, and inaccurate identification has many unfavorable consequences for the student and the entire educational system because students lose the opportunity of access to early intervention and appropriate educational support (Vaughn and Fuchs 2005). Furthermore, on average, the training costs of a student with LD are twice as much as the costs of a student without disability (Chambers et al. 2003).

The traditional approach in identifying LD has been the IQ-achievement discrepancy model. However, due to the weaknesses of this approach such as the difficulty of early identi- fication of children who are suspected for LD and the loss of early intervention opportunities (Lyon et al. 2006), applying inconsistent procedures for LD identification, and scant scientific support for using the model (Flanagan and Alfonso 2011), the implementation of the RTI approach was started in schools as an alternative in the early 2000s.

2 Response to intervention

RTI has been widely applied in the USA in recent years to preemptively identify and instruct students with LD and maximize their achievement (Mellard et al. 2009; National Center on Response to Intervention 2017). RTI is amulti-tiered system and includes designing appropri-

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ate supports tomeet the learning needs of all students while responding to the learner’s unique characteristics via targeted interventions (Bernhardt andHébert 2011). Its tiers (usually three) are organized in a way that in the higher tiers, the severity of interventions increases and the number of students, who receive the services, decreases. During the academic year, students can transfer between the tiers of the program and their progress is determined through the criteria obtained from regular assessment and monitoring (Lovelace et al. 2015).

Althoughwide-ranging change in an educational systemusually results in increased confu- sion and stress for students and school staff (Ng 2004), RTI has many positive outcomes. The findings of past research have indicated that implementing this approach not only increases the academic achievement of all students (Cullingford Vague 2011; Tilanus et al. 2016) but also enables the possibility of early intervention for students who are at risk of failure by per- forming regular comprehensive screening (Pierangelo and Giuliani 2008); it also decreases the number of students who are referred for special education by improving LD identification methods and consequently helps to reduce the expenditures of special education and services (O’Conner 2007; Pierangelo and Giuliani 2008).

In spite of its advantages, implementing RTI has had many challenges for the school authorities responsible for its implementation. Some of these challenges are mentioned in the review section.

3 Review of related literature

In the literature, there are many studies investigating the benefits and challenges of RTI implementation. In some of these studies, quantitative research methods have been applied. For example, Kaplan (2011) in a survey, which was conducted to find out the issues and challenges of an RTI program from the viewpoint of school psychologists, revealed that in the early stages of implementation, concerns fell into three main areas: collaboration with colleagues and other school staff, required information, training and skill to implement the program, and personal concerns about the ability needed for successful program implemen- tation. Furthermore, according to Kratochwill et al. (2007), one of the greatest challenges which special education personnel and related service providers currently face is training staff to meet the new requirements needed to identify students with LD in an RTI frame- work. In agreement with this finding, school psychologists believed that modification of the pre-service training of school staff, especially school psychologists, and continuous profes- sional development were the major factors for the successful implementation of RTI (Powers et al. 2008). In addition, one of the program’s barriers, according to high school principals, is scheduling meetings and intervention sessions (Sansosti et al. 2010a). Meta-analyses and systematic reviews have also implied that although RTI has several disadvantages, for exam- ple it has not completely succeeded in reducing the individual factors involved in the learning process (Tran et al. 2011) and it is a costly and difficult method to implement, it can con- tribute to students’ achievement, prevent their future failure, and improve their educational conditions (Denton 2012). According to the findings of another meta-analysis, RTI can effec- tively be adopted in other educational systems and its implementation has led to educational enhancement, improvement in the performance of LD students, students who are at risk of academic failure, and even those who speak English as a second language; it has also proved positive as regards improvement in teaching skills (Bagasi 2014). These quantitative studies, which were conducted at different educational levels, have provided a general view about implementing RTI, and its benefits, challenges and barriers, and there is general agreement among researchers on this subject.

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There are also several qualitative researches on this subject. Bahnsen (2013), for example, in a case study, investigated the processes and procedures applied in an elementary school to implement RTI effectively. Findings suggested that successful implementation of this model required the knowledge of data-based assessment, suitable professional development, powerful leadership and a team which worked collaboratively for the improvement of all stu- dents. In this regard, Little et al. (2017) examined school psychologists’ experiences through in-depth interviews and explored several challenges, including system-level needs such as lack of commitment to RTI in the educational system; the difficulty of the implementation of educational changes and the need for on-going professional development; teachers’ con- cerns about the program and its effectiveness; the need for powerful leadership in districts and schools; and resource management such as that of financial and human resources. In addition, Marrs and Little (2014) identified staff resistance as another challenge of program implementation. In another study, which was conducted using a focus group and examined the perspectives of school psychologists, Sansosti et al. (2010b) explored four main themes: system characteristics, system structures, evidence-based practices to meet the key compo- nents of RTI, and the need for professional development, which previous quantitative and qualitative studies had frequently emphasized. The results of a related research also noted that it was necessary for all administrators and stakeholders at district level to collaborate with a shared commitment toward student success through RTI in order to obtain the best results (Sansosti et al. 2011). To examine the viewpoints of special education teachers in this regard, Swanson et al. (2012) carried out in-depth interviews and found that providing early interventions, meeting the needs of students, and collaborating with others were the benefits of RTI implementation, and increased paperwork and the scheduling of intervention sessions for students were its challenges. Considering the findings of these qualitative studies, it is realized that although they are generally consistent with quantitative findings, they have stud- ied the subjects more specifically, provided more profound information, and clarified more details about implementing the program.

The noticeable point about all previous studies is that they investigated RTI processes and procedures, and its benefits and challenges while the program was being implemented on a state or national level and with official support from the government and the educational system of the country, and participants explained their experiences after real involvement in the program. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies investigating the necessary actions for the initiation of an RTI program. In addition, all previous studies are related to RTI implementation in developed countries with strong educational infrastructures. In these countries, the implementation of this program has been comprehensively studied and practiced. However, this type of program, which can potentially have many advantages, is considered as a new model for most of the developing countries, including Iran, and the required knowledge and skill for its practical implementation in their educational systems is limited; as far as we know, this type of program has neither been broadly implemented, nor have the prerequisites or challenges for its implementation in real situations been studied. This was one of the gaps the present research intended to address.

4 LD in Iran

The prevalence of LD in Iranian students is not quite clear due to the lack of official statistics. The findings of studies which have aimed to investigate this issue in recent years are also inconsistent. Two studies, for instance, have estimated the total percentage of elementary

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students with LD between 3.2% (Darvishi 2010) and 7.8% (Bahari-Gharagoz and Hahsemi 2013).

In Iran, the Special Educational Organization is the main official organization supporting students with various disabilities. This organization created the group dedicated to the educa- tion of students with LD in 1992, a group which is currently considered as the main authority responsible for identification and providing support and services for these students. The most important role of this organization is to establish the state centers responsible for identifying and educating LD students throughout the country (approximately 500 centers at present) (the Special Education Organization of Iran 2018) to which public schools usually refer their low-achievement students. Besides, there are some active private professional centers with licenses from the state Welfare Organization and the Psychology and Counseling Organiza- tion of Iran. These are usually run by special education professionals. To our knowledge, in both divisions, the IQ-achievement discrepancy model is still applied in order to identify children with LD. The process is as follows: A comprehensive intelligent test is initially given. If there is a significant discrepancy between the child’s IQ and their achievement in academic domains, they will be considered as an LD case and after a comprehensive evalu- ation of their cognitive or neuropsychological skills, they will receive some evidence-based instructions according to their weaknesses in the evaluated areas. Thus, in spite of all attempts to provide appropriate instructions and services for children with LD, in Iran, a preventive and comprehensive approach to identifying and instructing such children is not applied.

As far as the academic study is concerned, most research done on LD in Iran uses quan- titative methods having investigated the effectiveness of different instruction and treatment approaches. In contrast, the number of qualitative studies conducted with the aim of investi- gating the real-life conditions and needs of students with LD or the viewpoints of educational authorities on the issues related to this group of students is very limited. Thus, investigating the current conditions of Iran’s educational systemwith respect to elementary school students with LD is another purpose of this paper.

5 Research aims

This is an exploratory study conducted due to the lack of a qualitative or quantitative research focused specifically on the prerequisites and needed actions to implement preven- tive programs such as RTI for students with LD in a developing country such as Iran. What distinguishes this study from other related research is that its researchers sought, firstly, to investigate the current methods or approaches that Iran’s educational system applies to deal with LD in elementary schools, and their impacts on all people involved; secondly, to explore the potential challenges of the initiation of implementing an RTI program; and, finally, to determine the significant factors of its success in a developing country like Iran which has no history of implementing such programs in its educational system. Furthermore, in the present study, the viewpoints of different school staff members such as teachers, principals and prin- cipal assistants (not only a single group of staff members) were investigated. The reason was that they had better knowledge of the students’ difficulties and the current deficiencies of the educational system of the country; furthermore, due to their school responsibilities, they had different interpretations of the situation and could present different attitudes. The findings of this research can help education stakeholders and researchers get a better picture of the current conditions and challenges of Iran’s educational system, and identify the issues which

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could be investigated more deeply in future research on improving the quality of education and implementing preventive programs such as RTI in developing countries.

6 Research questions

Considering the above, the main purpose of the present article was to study, qualitatively, the current conditions of Iran’s elementary schools in respect of implementing a program with an RTI approach, and to describe the issues of the educational system while providing suggestions which could eliminate the barriers of its implementation. Therefore, in this study, we sought to answer the following questions:

• What are the current processes of identifying and instructing students with LD in Iranian schools? How are students, teachers, school staff members and parents affected by such processes?

• What facilities would be needed, considering the current conditions of Iran’s elementary schools and its educational system, to implement a program such as RTI?

• What potential factors would be influential for the program’s successful implementation?

7 Method

In order to investigate the issue, a qualitative method was applied. In this study, the main focus was on achieving a comprehensive insight into a possible process of meeting the needs of students with LD and investigating the conditions of RTI implementation in elementary schools. Accordingly, the statements of experienced individuals working in this area were scrutinized and analyzed. Since gathering qualitative data is based on a close and deep connection with people who are really engaged in the actual situation, it is a proper method for obtaining and understanding the experience of the participants (Charmaz 2006).

7.1 Participants

Due to the difficulty of meeting with high-ranking officials of the educational system, and due to the fact that the challenges confronting the student are more perceptible in the school environment, this research was conducted at school level.

It was attempted to choose schools that represented all elementary schools in Iran. Hence, initially, the multi-stage random sampling method was applied. In the first stage, two districts were randomly chosen from among the five educational districts of Isfahan, Iran. Then, one elementary school was selected randomly from each district. The two selected schools taught students in grades 1 through 6. School A, with 550 to 600 students, was located in the city center and school B, with 150 to 200 students, in the suburbs.

After school selection, participants were chosen from them by using the purposeful sam- pling method. They included 6 school staff and 3 parents (six and three participants from schools A and B, respectively). All of them were women, and their educational level var- ied from high school diploma to master’s degree. In order to select school personnel, three main criteria were considered: (a) having at least 12 years of teaching experience or work in elementary schools, (b) having teaching experiences in all six grades of the elementary level for better familiarization with the characteristics of students in all these grades, and (c) knowledge of the concept, types, and symptoms of LD in students. Considering these

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criteria, 6 volunteers were interviewed. They were: Ms. S, a school principal with 20 years of administrative experience and a member of the District School Assessment team, Ms. A, a principal assistant who was close to retirement and had several years of administration experience, Ms. R, another principal assistant with a master’s degree in psychology who was experienced in workingwith students with learning and behavioral problems andwith several years of teaching experience particularly with first-grade students, andMs. L,Ms.M andMs. H, three teachers who had some students with LD in their classes in the current academic year. The staff members were between 34 to 52 years old with an average of 25 years of teaching and working experience in elementary schools.

The three parents were selected from among the parents of students who, according to their teachers, had learning problems. Before choosing the parents, teachers were first asked to introduce students who had low academic achievement and probably LD. Then, one researcher of our team contacted their parents, explained the research subject and purpose and invited them to take part in the study. Finally, 3 volunteers were interviewed.

The researchers also wanted to know the students’ perspectives and their emotional and social difficulties in the current educational condition of the country. Thus, among the pupils who had learning problems and were known as low achievers in their classes and had been introduced by their teachers, 8 pupils (4 female and 4 male, 3 third graders, 2 fourth graders and 3 fifth graders), who were willing to talk, were chosen and, after obtaining their parents’ consent, informal conversations were held with them. In addition, their behavior in school and in relation to other students, their teachers and other school staff was monitored.

7.2 Ethics

In order to remain within ethical boundaries, only voluntary participants took part in this research and before the interview, they were given the necessary information about the pur- pose of the study and their informed consent was obtained. All participants were also assured that their information and interactions would remain completely confidential, and they could leave the study whenever they wanted. In addition, before data analysis, all the participants’ talks were checked and any detail or piece of information which could potentially reveal their identity was removed.

7.3 Data collection

The data were primarily collected through semi-structured one-on-one interviews with teach- ers, school personnel and parents and conversations with LD students. Before the interviews, the research team determined the main topics which would be discussed. Although the main topics were covered during interviews, specific questions varied according to the cir- cumstances of each participant. New questions were incorporated, and old questions were reformulated so that the participants’ experiences would be revealed more clearly. Each interview was recorded, transcribed and compared with previous interviews using constant comparative analysis (Strauss and Corbin 1990) and if necessary, questions varied in later interviews based on newly emerging issues. All interviews were conducted in the schools, and each one lasted between 45 to 60 min.

Other parts of the data were gathered from informal conversations with students with LD, especially those who were in higher grades and monitoring their apparent behavioral and/or emotional manifestations and note taking The main goal of this was verifying the obtained data from the interviews by means of acquiring information about the current conditions

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of these students in schools including the way they communicated with their teachers and classmates, the problems with which they were engaged and a general understanding of what they were experiencing in the current educational system. However, since these pupils were too young to participate in a structured interview and might feel uncomfortable in a formal situation, some casual and friendly conversations were carried out with 8 of them on several appropriate occasions in school. Each conversation was about the different conditions that the student experienced in the school and at home, and in relation to their classmates, teachers and family. All conversations were conducted in school, and each one lasted between 10 and 15min (100min collectively). In addition, the students’ noticeable behavior and dispositions, and the way and quality of their interactions with other students, teachers and school staff were monitored and recorded during the conversations and on other occasions when the researchers were present in the schools. Based on this belief that authentic behavior in real- life situations may be the most important source of information in qualitative studies, the researchers utilized this information as the means to confirm other participants’ ideas and the notions of the students themselves.

7.4 Procedure

Initially, the teachers and school staff were interviewed. In this stage, these main subjects were investigated: what the identification processes of students with LD in Iranian schools are; what kinds of procedures are carried out to facilitate the instruction of such students; and how these procedures affect the teachers and students. In addition, the conversations with students as well as the researchers’ notes about their conditions at school were recorded. During the first stages of the analysis of the interviews and notes, it was realized that LD caused many social and psychological difficulties for students. Because these difficulties also have significant impacts on the families, the parents of students with LD were interviewed and the effects of learning problems on the student himself, his parents and his family were discussed.

In the second phase of the research, in order to investigate the possibility of implementing an RTI program in elementary schools and acquiring information about the facilities and conditions required for such a program based on the viewpoints of the school staff, a meeting was arranged to introduce the RTI approach and explain its goals to the teachers and staff of both schools. This was inevitable because even now, there are few people in Iran’s schools and educational systemwho are familiar with the concept of RTI. After that, the participants were interviewed again, and their views recorded. In this series of interviews, the intention was to find out what conditions should exist and what factors should be taken into consideration if a program such as RTI were to be implemented in schools to identify and instruct students with difficulties, especially LD. Furthermore, their opinions were scrutinized to determine how the implementation of this program would affect the people involved in the educational setting. Collecting and analyzing data continued until the various categories of the model were saturated.

7.5 Trustworthiness

In order to ensure that the collected data were trustworthy, the following measures were taken. Before collecting data, a colleague, who was not included in the research team, was asked to review the questions in order to pinpoint ones that might interfere with respondent answers. During the data collection stage, interviews and conversations were conducted by

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three different persons. They frequently monitored themselves to make sure that they were not leading the respondent’s answer by their words or gestures. They tried to ask neutral, indirect and open-ended questions and inquire about the respondent’s ideas and thoughts and clarify their vague notions. The respondents’ answers using their own language were also recorded, and the researchers strived to avoid summarizing, expanding, or substituting respondent statements with their own words or ideas. In the coding and analyzing stage, the transcribed interview as well as the interpretations of each participant’s statements was given back to them to see whether the researchers’ interpretations were representative of the participant’s beliefs. In addition, two other colleagues who were not familiar with the subject were asked to code the data and review the results and conclusions.

7.6 Data analysis

In this research, the proposed method by Strauss and Corbin (1990) for open, axial and selective codingwas applied for data analysis. In the open coding, each interview transcription or note was analyzed sentence by sentence or in groups of sentences conveying the same idea. A code was assigned to each sentence which reflected its main idea or concept. The initial codes and categories were compared systematically and used to form more inclusive and complex categories. Open coding was followed by axial coding by which categories were combined andmain categories and their connectionswere identified. Finally, selective coding was conducted which included the process of selecting the core category, relating it to other categories and substituting categories which required further refinement.

8 Results

The model for a proposed way of addressing students with LD in Iranian elementary schools and implementing an identification and instruction program with the RTI approach, which was evolved from Strauss and Corbin’s (1990) method and developed based on this research, is presented in Fig. 1.

8.1 Causal conditions of phenomena related to LD in schools

Three types of causal conditions emerged from the data. They include: (a) lack of proper educational planning; (b) lack of professional staff in schools which was primarily extracted from the viewpoints of school staff; and (c) the high cost of special education in out-of-school centers that was implied in the views of parents and school staff.

a. Lack of proper educational planning According to the findings, in Iran’s educational system, there is no specific and systematic program to identify and instruct students with LD, which should be a requirement for all schools, and with the aid of which these students can be identified in the early years of their entrance to school and be provided with the needed training and services. All of the teachers and school staff somehow noted this issue and added that they refer students with LD to the out-of-school professional centers to receive appropriate training. It should be said that, according toMs. S “Usually, a series of extracurricular classes are held every year for low-achieving students in the school. However, there are students who still have difficulties and these courses are not enough for them. They should receive some kind of special education…”

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Fig. 1 A model for implementing RTI in Iran’s educational system depicting its prerequisites and outcomes

b. Lack of professional staff in schools Another causal condition is the lack of professional staff in schools which was mentioned by all school personnel. In their opinion, in Iranian elementary schools, a few staff members have the knowledge or skill required to deal with students’ problems, including LD, and even if they wanted to help troubled students sympathetically, theywould not be completely successful. Currently, there is no employee working as psychologist, counselor, or special education teacher and the like in Iran’s elementary schools. As Ms. H explained: “The only issue is not the lack of specialists in LD. For example, a child who stutters has many problems, both in school and at home. But we have no one in school who can help them cope with these problems…” In this regard, Ms. S also regretted “Because of our limitations, we can’t hire professional staff especially in public schools for this purpose.”

c. The high cost of special education in out-of -school centers As mentioned earlier, school officials refer students with LD to out-of-school professional centers to determine the problem and receive necessary instruction. But, in these centers, the costs of counseling and special education services are usually high and most middle-class families are hardly able to afford them. Besides, referral to these centers is not compulsory and parents have the right to choose.

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8.2 Current conditions

The causal conditions have led to the current conditions of students with LD in elementary schools. These conditions include a variety of problems for students, their families, and for the school staff.

a. School problems These problems, which were mainly obtained from the interviews with school staff and conversations with students, include issues arising from a lack of proper planning for students with LD in the school environment. According to them, at all elementary levels, there are students who have LD the aspects of which are manifested in different fields of education. In addition, according to the school principal assistants, about half of the students who are sent to the school office have learning problems. These students are absent from school more than others with various excuses which results in aggravating their already poor academic performance. Moreover, being deprived of the necessary education worsens the problems of students with LD in higher levels and leads to their academic failure. Eventually, many of them drop out of school due to the lack of progress and frustration which they experience in the course of education.

b. Social problems According to all participants including school personnel, parents and students themselves, LD causes social problems for students in school in relation to others. In most cases, a student who has little academic achievement also has difficulties in relationships with classmates and is rejected by them. Other children put the student aside from their games and do not allow them to take part in group activities. “…These children are usually alone…” (Ms. H). Moreover, these students also have difficulties in relationships with teachers and school officials. They do not like their teacher, do not talk about their problems with them, argue with them or, on the contrary, are isolated and try to keep themselves away from teachers and school staff. Besides, these students have a lot of conflict with their parents over school-related issues, which even has an influence on their emotional relationships and causes psychological problems for both family and child. One mother explained: “We constantly argue with each other over her school works. I have recently realized that she lies to me about her grades and hides her exam papers from me…I’m very upset that she’s lying to me. Of course, she knows this and she’s upset too. I feel that she’s not happy. When the topic of school and study comes up, she becomes angry quickly and most of the time she takes it out on her little brother…”

c. Psychological problems The findings show that in the current educational system of the country, neglected students with LD experience a variety of psychological disturbances such as anxiety, depression, negative attitude toward themselves, and the expectation of failure in everything. Almost all teachers and parents acknowledged this and believed that in upper school levels, the more the academic problems, the more the psychological disturbances in students. Ms. R explained in detail: “Because they are always blamed for being poor in school performance, they think they are not good and don’t learn anything. They have low self-esteem and don’t like to take part in any activities. They are always alone, depressed and anxious.” Ms. M also noted: “They will stop working very soon and wait for the teacher to tell them what to do. They have no motive to try, and even if they succeed, it seems to them that it’s accidental.”

d. Behavioral problems According to teachers and parents alike, behavioral problems are more common among students with LD. Due to social problems experienced in different relationships, they behave badly. Ms. R noted: “Because others disregard these students and ridicule them,most of them start arguments and evenfights to get attention.According

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to my experience, especially as a principal assistant who has to deal with these issues, most of the pupils who have behavioral problems have learning difficulties too.”

8.3 Strategies and actions for implementing RTI in elementary schools

Regarding the current condition of students with LD in Iran’s elementary schools and its causal conditions, we subsequently investigated the issue of the steps to be taken based on the status quo which would allow the implementation of the RTI approach. These steps, which were gleaned from the teachers’ and school staff’s opinions, can be classified into two main categories which are explained in detail below.

8.3.1 Actions related to the educational system

a. Initial fundamental planning and course of action In order to successfully implement an RTI program in the country, it is first necessary to deal with the prerequisites and required conditions for its implementation. Since RTI is a preventive program (National Center on Response to Intervention 2017), the first step of its implementation is that the educational system of the country should also adopt a preventive approach in relation to students with LD. Furthermore, all teachers and school officials strongly stated that it is necessary to make comprehensive changes in the educational system so that a compre- hensive instructional program could be provided for these students across the country. Initially, the authorities’ support should be sought. Then, the necessary legislation associ- ated with it should bemade. After that, a group of experts in general and special education should be gathered for policy-making and planning. Finally, the necessary decisions for program implementation should be made. In general, the planes that should be clarified include: the type of approach, the educational grades and levels in which the program should be implemented, the process of program implementation, the persons responsible for providing instruction and their authority, the type of required resources and facilities and how they are to be supplied, and the methods of monitoring.

b. Funding After planning and determining the policies, the required financial resources must be provided by responsible organizations. These resources will be used for briefing sessions and training courses for educational staff; hiring, training and paying the salary of professionals who would be employed to help implement the program and provide special instruction in schools, and allocating funds to schools to provide equipment, instruments, and facilities which would be needed to run the program.

c. Employing professionalsAs noted earlier, one of themain reasons for the high prevalence of LD in elementary schools and the resulting problems is the lack of professional staff capable of tackling such problems. In this regard, all school personnel strongly believed that one of the main requirements for the implementation of an RTI program in schools was the employment of those who have sufficient experience and skill in dealing with the problems of elementary school students. These individuals should have sufficient knowledge; they should be well informed of the various difficulties of children in this age including psychological, emotional, social or educational problems, the methods of dealing with them, the newest treatment methods or educational approaches, especially in the field of special education, and evaluation and assessment methods. All school officials repeatedly pointed out during their assertions that their training and skills were not enough to address the existing problems in their schools, and that elementary schools seriously require a specialist.

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d. Training teachers and school staff Another step that should be taken by the country’s educational system is the arrangement of briefing sessions and training courses for prin- cipals, teachers and other school staff. Essentially, the purpose of this would be for the educators to be familiarized with the program, its goals, and implementation process to knowwhat responsibilities theywould undertakewithin the scope of their duties. Further- more, all staff members must receive appropriate and high-level training depending on their responsibilities. For example, teachers can be provided with training in the follow- ing areas: the best teaching methods, different assessment methods and how to use their outcomes, procedures of problem identification, and the provision of the best instruc- tional methods considering the specific characteristics of each student and the available resources.

e. MonitoringThe last but not the least action of the educational systemwould be tomonitor the correct implementation of the program. Ms. A explained: “However, this is a new program, and teachers and school officials, especially during the initial stages and even after having completed their training courses, would not be very well versed in it and wouldn’t have the skill to do it perfectly…Tomake sure that what we would be doing was right, there is also a need for a monitoring program.” In fact, examining program integrity and ensuring the correctness of implementation is one of the fundamental principles of RTI (Burns and Gibbons 2012), which should be done for the following purposes: checking the accuracy of the program’s implementation at different levels, examining the suitability and effectiveness of the measurement tools and instructional methods used in schools, monitoring the progress of students and preventing waste of resources. These monitoring actions should be carried out by the education departments and in various ways. In general, on-site inspections, requesting periodic documentary reports, assessing the progress of students in each school can be applied for this purpose.

8.3.2 Actions related to schools

a. Developing working teams in school Once the educational system has completed the initial steps and provided all the necessary prerequisites for the program, it is time for schools to start using it. The first step in implementing RTI in schools is to develop teams needed to run the program at its various levels and stages. This team, in which can be included the principal, principal assistant, teachers, psychologist, and special education specialist, has various responsibilities. The main duties of this team would be providing assessment and progress monitoring tools, evaluating the data obtained from the assessments, identifying students with difficulties, providing instruction based on available resources for groups or individuals in the case of non-responsive students, and monitoring the progress of the students.

b. Providing the necessary tools, equipment, and facilities After forming the teams, the conditions and facilities necessary for program implementation in the school should be created and provided. This can be done by having a suitable area for group or individual instruction and the necessary tools and facilities. Also, classroom curriculums in school should be planned in such a way that would not interfere with the process of offering extracurricular activities to students. “They could be trained separately, without being deprived of their regular class” (Ms. S). In addition, the responsible teams in the school should design and make the necessary assessment tools for use at different levels of the program for each grade, each tier, and each syllabus.

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8.4 Conditions effective on program implementation

Data analysis showed that there are also some factors which are not necessary for program implementation but can facilitate it and increase its positive outcomes. These factors, which were mainly inferred from the teachers’ and school staff’s points of view, fall into two general categories: (a) cooperation of teachers and other education stakeholders, and (b) parental cooperation.

a. Cooperation of teachers and other education stakeholders According to all school per- sonnel, one of the most important factors facilitating the RTI implementation process, which, inMs.A’s opinion, is “Its key to success,” is that all those involved in the instruction of students work in perfect harmony with each other. This cooperation and coordination is especially important at school level, the main place for program implementation. The teams responsible for assessment and instruction at the different levels of the program should interact with each other, with the psychologist or special education specialist, and teachers and other school staff, to make the best decisions. Teachers who have closer relationships with students and their parents can collabo- rate with the instruction and problem-solving teams to better understand each student’s problem, determine their specific instruction and its effectiveness, and obtain parental satisfaction and collaboration. Ms. L noted: “The teacher knows what the kids are capa- ble of and in what area each one is weak and needs more work. She is also aware of any slight change in their condition and can determine whether or not the instructions were effective…”

b. Parental cooperationAlthough schools and the educational systemaremainly responsible for educating schoolchildren, parents can also play an effective role in this regard. They can help the RTI team to acquire better knowledge of the student’s strengths, weaknesses, interests, and preferences. They may also practice instruction techniques with their child at home. In addition, they can help to improve and modify the program and reduce its deficiencies by providing constructive proposals and appropriate feedbacks.

8.5 Consequences

The successful implementation of the RTI program will have many positive outcomes, and all those who are related to the educational system in any way will benefit from it. According to the results, these consequences fall into three broad categories, which are described below.

a. Consequences for studentsThese consequences, whichwere extracted from school staff’s opinions, are the most important outcomes of RTI implementation. By implementing this program, students with LDwill receive the required instruction and services according to their type of problem, and as a result, their learning problemswill decrease,which can also affect other aspects of their lives. For example, the experience of success in educational fields changes students’ negative attitudes toward themselves and their abilities, and they become motivated to work harder. This leads to further progress and success in school, reduces students’ socio-emotional problems, and consequently, lessens their anxiety and other forms of psychological distress, and behavioral disturbances at home and school.

b. Consequences for teachers and parents The implementation of the program is also ben- eficial for parents and teachers. Reducing students’ learning problems in the classroom will make it easier for teachers to concentrate on teaching. In addition, they will have more interest and motivation to work with the program’s implementers through which their information and knowledge of their students’ various problems and ways to cope

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with themwill increase. Also, seeing a student’s progress and the resulting pleasant expe- riences they get through the process will increase their job satisfaction and encourage them to deliver their best performance. This is also correct concerning parents. These parents are constantly worried about their child’s academic performance and look for proper training for them. By the implemen- tation of this program, they will be assured that their children will receive the most appropriate instruction provided by specialists at their own school for free. And so their concerns will be reduced to a great extent. In addition, when they see the gradual progress of their children, they will be encouraged to collaborate with the implementers at school as much as possible.

c. Consequences for the educational system and the country In school staff’s opinions, the implementation of this programwill havemany positive consequences for the educational system, and at a higher level, for the country. Since one of the main goals of RTI is the early identification and instruction of students with LD, if this program is implemented correctly, students’ learning problems will be determined in the early years of entry into school and the necessary services and support will be provided for them. As a result, within a few years, the potential learning problems at higher educational levels, as well as the resulting inefficiencies will be significantly reduced, which will mean reducing the problems of teachers and schools and improving educational quality in the country.

Furthermore, although the implementation of this program requires high investment at the beginning, in due time it will have great economic benefit for the community. “In all, this is an investment for the future” (Ms. A). “By implementing this program, all students, from the time they start school, can receive very suitable individualized instructions, at their own school, and for free. This reduces the costs of training these kids; because we no longer have to send them to private centers that have high fees” (Ms. H).

Another major outcome of implementing the program on a national level is that the conditions for recruiting a large number of skilled and educated people in this area will be provided. Ms. H explained: “…We have many educated people specializing in this field, most of whom have no permanent job and are actually unemployed…. By implementing this program, they will find a job, and we will benefit from their expertise to help the children and, in fact, benefit the community…” This is an important advantage for a country like Iran, in which youth unemployment, especially among educated people, is one of the major social problems, and can greatly affect economic conditions.

9 Discussion

The present study was conducted to investigate the prerequisites and challenges of imple- menting a program with an RTI approach to address the problems of students with LD in the elementary schools of a developing country, and a model was created based on the analy- sis of qualitative data obtained from interviews with people who work with students, some with learning disabilities, as well as the conversations of the researchers with the students themselves.

According to the findings, the current condition in Iran’s educational system can be sum- marized as follows: The lack of proper educational planning and of professionals in special education in elementary schools has led to a lack of special formal education and support for students with LD and those who are at risk of academic failure in school. As a result, the instruction of these students is postponed until a number of years after starting school

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when their problems have increased and require more effort, services, and expenses and the children have to go to out-of-school professional centers to cope with their problems. However, the cost of services at these centers is usually high, and low-income groups in the community cannot benefit from them. These factors increase the number of students with LD in schools, especially at higher levels, leading to repeated failures and secondary emotional disturbances, and become a major problem for those involved. In addition, they create more problems for the student in other areas of life (Klassen and Lynch 2007; Sideridis 2007; Auerbach et al. 2008; Estell et al. 2008; Freilich and Shechtman 2010; Gerber 2012). In sum- mary, the dominant educational system in Iran in relation to students with LD is an example of an unintended “wait and see failure” approach.

In order to reduce the unfavorable outcomes of LD and prevent exacerbating students’ problems, preventive programs such asRTI can be used for early identification and instruction (Burns and Gibbons 2012; National Center on Response to Intervention 2017). According to the findings of this study, for the implementation of such a program in Iran, a comprehen- sive and fundamental planning needs to be carried out by the country’s educational system, required resources need to be provided, and qualified individuals employed. The last point is especially important, and according to all school personnel, it is one of the most important needs of schools for the successful implementation of the program. While previous stud- ies have investigated this issue in developed countries, our findings about the necessities of appropriate planning and considerable educational changes at school, district, and national levels (Swanson et al. 2012; Little et al. 2017), resources management (Little et al. 2017), and employment of competent professionals (Bahnsen 2013) are consistent with their results.

Furthermore, according to the findings, teams to run the program in schools should be formed. School staff should also be given the necessary training about the procedures and methods of assessment, instruction and progress monitoring. Otherwise, the success of the program cannot be guaranteed. Even in developed countries where all the requirements for program implementation are provided, the concerns about necessary information, training and qualifications are still among the major concerns of RTI implementers (Kaplan 2011).

In agreement with previous research (Kaplan 2011; Sansosti et al. 2011; Bahnsen 2013), the school staff who participated in this study expressed that, among other factors that can help to implement the program, it is the full cooperation of all educational staff and their high commitment to providing the best quality services which plays a crucial role. Although in some cases, school staff show resistance to implementing the program (Marrs and Little 2014), the implementers’ collaboration is one of the most important factors for success. In addition, even though schools are not required to obtain permission from parents to instruct students, parent collaboration can facilitate the process and lead to the greater success of school intervention. This is due to the fact that, according to Burns and Gibbons (2012), par- ents can use home-based educational techniques for their child that will boost verbal language skills and overall cognitive abilities. However, we could not find any study investigating the parents’ role in the successful implementation of RTI.

Since RTI is a flexible program and allows schools to use available resources to carry out its processes, it can be adopted effectively in the educational systems of other countries (Bagasi 2014). All school personnel who participated in this study also believed that, despite all the obstacles and problems that we may encounter, it will be possible to implement the program in Iran’s educational system and its successful implementation will have very good outcomes for all students, school staff, families and, more broadly, for the whole system. Also, in the long run, by reducing the number of students who are referred to receive special education and services (O’Connor, 2007; Pierangelo and Giuliani 2008), it will reduce the costs of such services, increase employment rates and consequently lead to economic savings.

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10 Conclusion

The findings of this study suggest important actions at both educational policy and practice levels. Firstly, the findings, which emerged from the real-life experiences of participants can be used to identify the types and severity of the learning problems (and their causal conditions) which students, families, teachers and school staff encounter in Iran’s current educational system and take the proper actions to provide the required services, prevent problem aggravation, and reduce the expenses of special education. Secondly, because of the lack of professional staff in Iran’s elementary schools such as psychologists or special education specialists which, according to the findings, is among the main causal factors of the current problems of the educational system in respect of LD students, the government and other related organizationsmay provide employment opportunities for such people in schools. This will lead to an increase in the employment rate, and provide one of themain prerequisites for implementing such educational programs in schools. In addition, if the educational system is to be changed, and a new one able to address the needs of all students created, these findings can serve as guidelines for authorities in making decisions about educational policies and addressing needs and deficiencies. Finally, while the findings emerged from this qualitative study are based on the specific conditions and policies of the Iranian educational system, important factors have been identified that can facilitate the successful implementation of a preventive program such as RTI not only in Iran but also in other developing countries which have no specific program for addressing students with LD, and need a way of enhancing their level of education and provision of services.

11 Limitations and suggestions

This study had some limitations. For instance, the generalizability of the findings is over- shadowed by its methodology, especially as regards the limited number of participants who were selected from certain situations. Participants were chosen from 2 elementary schools in a big city, none of whom had important executive responsibilities in the country’s educational system, and whose opinions more closely reflected the issues and conditions perceived at the level of local schools and district education offices. Therefore, their attitudes cannot represent the views of all educational stakeholders at the city or country levels. Besides, unlike most of the previous studies in which professional staff such as school psychologists or special education teachers were selected as participants, in this study, we had to choose other school authorities such as principals, principal assistants, and general education teachers. This was due to the fact that, in Iran, such professional staff is not generally employed in schools. Moreover, due to the lack of similar research, especially studies examining the conditions of developing countries for implementing educational programs, the possibility of comparing results was considerably decreased. Last but not least, generally, since qualitative studies are based on interpretive methods rather than standardized measures, there is always the possibility of biases in the data collection, interpretation and conclusion stages of the study. Although the authors of this study did their best to avoid possible biases, the identification and interpretation of the themes of this study may have been influenced by their personal experience and background.

Considering the limitations of this study, it is suggested that more participants be recruited in future research and researchers also examine the views of those who have a higher posi- tion in the country’s educational system because such people have more information about the resources the country can offer and will be able to provide clearer vistas. In addition,

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investigating the views of teachers and school officials in the smaller and underdeveloped regions of the country, which have a lower potential compared to large cities, can be useful. Furthermore, as specialists in identifying and instructing LD, the authors studied the learning problems of students only, and even though they used the views of their other colleagues who use different approaches to analyzing data, it is necessary to conduct similar studies in other fields, in particular education and curriculum development, in order to expand these findings and examine the feasibility of implementing a program such as RTI from other perspectives.

Despite all difficulties and constraints, and admitting that, to our knowledge, this was the first study in this kind, it can be a base or starting point for researching, planning and implementing comprehensive educational programs such as RTI in developing countries, programs that can bring about an education enhancement and reduction in many social problems.

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