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Superhero justice: The depiction of crime and justice in

modern-age comic books and graphic novels

Article  in  D_Sociology of Crime Law and Deviance · April 2010

DOI: 10.1108/S1521-6136(2010)0000014006

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SUPERHERO JUSTICE: THE

DEPICTION OF CRIME AND

JUSTICE IN MODERN-AGE COMIC

BOOKS AND GRAPHIC NOVELS

Bradford W. Reyns and Billy Henson

ABSTRACT

Purpose – Crime, criminals, the criminal justice system, and criminal justice system actors have traditionally occupied a prominent place in popular media. Comic books and graphic novels are no exception to this trend. Despite this, these media have received comparatively little attention from criminal justice scholars. This chapter seeks to explore the depiction of crime and justice in modern-era comic books and graphic novels.

Methodology/approach – Content analysis techniques were used to examine 166 individual comic books from the modern age (mid-1980s to present), including those compiled in graphic novel form. Particular emphasis was placed on issues of crime control and due process.

Findings – Clear criminal justice themes were seen across the sample, including an emphasis on crime control and crime prevention. Further, comic books featuring the individual characters of Superman and Batman portrayed opposing conceptions of justice, such as justified/unjustified use of force and a willingness to follow or break the law.

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Popular Culture, Crime and Social Control

Sociology of Crime, Law and Deviance, Volume 14, 45–66

Copyright r 2010 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved

ISSN: 1521-6136/doi:10.1108/S1521-6136(2010)0000014006

45

Research limitations – This research represents an exploration of the depiction of crime-related themes in comic books and graphic novels, but is by no means definitive. It would be useful to extend this research by examining other eras in comic book history as well as other comic book characters and publishing companies.

Practical implications – The public’s perceptions of the criminal justice system ultimately affect societal views of the legitimacy of the system. Since legitimacy is a requisite for compliance, it is important to understand factors that may influence these perceptions. These may include comic books, graphic novels, and other popular media.

Originality/value of paper – Comic books stories and themes have long reflected the times. However, it is unclear how crime and the criminal justice system are portrayed in the comic book world. This chapter is an attempt to fill a gap in the extant literature by examining this often neglected form of popular media.

Really, Lois, supposing that man had shot you? Is it worth risking your life over ten dollars,

two credit cards, a hairbrush, and a lipstick?

– Christopher Reeve as Clark Kent in Superman: The Movie (1978)

As long as it takes. I’m gonna show the people of Gotham that their city doesn’t belong to

the criminals and the corrupt.

– Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne in Batman Begins (2005)

INTRODUCTION

Popular culture and media (e.g., television programs, movies, music, and print media) are often considered as a reflection of the times. This being the case, crime and crime-related themes are a frequent subject in popular media (Bailey & Hale, 1998). For instance, a number of the most widely watched television dramas involve some aspect of crime or the criminal justice system (e.g., Prison Break, CSI: New York, 24). In addition, many of the most critically well-received films have addressed themes of crime and justice (e.g., The Godfather, The Departed). Accordingly, these aspects of modern culture have garnered the attention of criminal justice researchers interested in how crime and the criminal justice system are portrayed in these forms of media (e.g., Barak, 1994; Eschholz, Mallard, & Flynn, 2004).

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BRADFORD W. REYNS AND BILLY HENSON46

The implication is that these portrayals may inform the average consumer regarding aspects of society that they may have little contact with (i.e., crime). It’s unclear to what extent these media depictions of crime and justice ultimately affect larger attitudes about the legitimacy of either the system or system actors, however, since research suggests that legitimacy is a requisite for the compliance of the citizenry, these issues are indeed worth exploring (Mastrofski, Snipes, & Supina, 1996; Tyler, 1990). One form of media which has received relatively little attention from researchers in this regard is comic books (Stoddart, 2006). This is despite their historic relevance, wide readership, cultural impact, and growing influence on other more mainstream forms of media.

1

CULTURAL CRIMINOLOGY AS A

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

Cultural criminology is a theoretical approach to the study of crime within a cultural context (Ferrell & Sanders, 1995). The premise of this theoretical perspective is that elements of culture convey the meaning of crime (Ferrell, Hayward, & Young, 2008). In fact, according to Ferrell and Sanders (1995, p. 6), ‘‘To understand the reality of crime and criminalization, then, cultural criminology must account not only for the dynamics of criminal subcultures but for the dynamics of the mass media as well,’’ and ‘‘Making sense of crime and criminalization means paying close attention to culture,’’ (p. 7). Correspondingly, one of the views of this perspective is that crime and justice intertwine with contemporary media to shape dominant perceptions of crime and justice (Adkinson, 2008; Ferrell et al., 2008). If media such as comic books and other forms of popular culture meld with the reality of crime to solidify societal views of crime and justice, then it is crucial to better understand the ways in which crime-related phenomena are portrayed in these various forms of media. This is why Ferrell et al. (2008), argue that criminology needs to have a wider focus – one that can better conceptualize and contextualize crime by paying attention to the culture it occurs within.

Perceptions, as in the perceptions generated about crime when culture and crime interweave, can have significant repercussions. The extant literature on the topic suggests that perceptions are an important requisite for compliance with the law, especially perceptions of the legitimacy of agents of social control or of the criminal justice system. Indeed, Tyler (1990) has

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AU:2Superhero Justice 47

conducted research into issues of legitimacy and compliance, especially in terms of distributive and procedural justice, and his instrumental and normative perspectives, and reported that normative issues are of paramount importance in shaping decisions to obey the law. In other words, people obey the law because they believe it is proper to do so (see Tyler et al., 2007). Mastrofski et al. (1996) also studied this issue and reported that when agents of social control (i.e., the police) do things to undercut their legitimacy (e.g., show disrespect), compliance becomes problematic. This research supports the idea that attitudes and perceptions can have important consequences. If portrayals of police, the criminal justice system, and the like, in contemporary media ultimately affect the perceptions of the citizenry regarding these issues as cultural criminology suggests, then it is essential to study various elements of culture and media that intersect with crime. This study addresses this issue by studying one aspect of popular culture (i.e., comic books) which has received relatively little attention to date. Although it is important to understand the ways in which elements of culture and popular media, such as comic books, ultimately affect societal percep- tions, this research is concerned with the portrayal of aspects of crime and justice in comic books and graphic novels. An assessment of the impact of these depictions on larger social attitudes (e.g., Kirsh & Olczak, 2002; Norton, 2003) is a topic left to future researchers.

COMIC BOOKS, GRAPHIC NOVELS AND

SUPERHEROES

Comic books are usually short (e.g., approximately 40 pages or less) paperback books or magazines that contain artwork, narratives, and dialog. They are typically published on a monthly or bi-monthly basis depending on the title and the publishing company.

2 The term ‘‘comic book’’ is actually a

reference to the early reprints of humorous newspaper comic strips in short book form which were published in the early 1930s (Wright, 2001). The pulp magazine industry, with roots in the dime novels of the Civil War era, is also considered one of the antecedents of the modern day comic book (Wright, 2001). Graphic novels are most often reprinted compilations of previously published comic book stories representing a particular story arc from a larger series of comics (e.g., Captain America, Hellboy, and Justice League of America). These publications more closely resemble a full-length novel and typically include 3-12 comic books. Graphic novels may also include

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BRADFORD W. REYNS AND BILLY HENSON48

reprints of ‘‘one-shot’’ comic book story arcs (e.g., Watchmen, Wanted, and Sin City).

Comic books soon evolved into a medium in which action and adventure stories were told, usually involving superheroes (e.g., Spider-Man, Aquaman, and Wonder Woman). These early action stories frequently focused heavily on issues of crime and justice, and often reflected the headlines of the times (e.g., Dick Tracy, Green Hornet, and Police Comics) (Nyberg, 1998a, 1998b). Indeed, comic books have addressed many current events over the decades, from the principles of Roosevelt’s New Deal (Wright, 2001) to the recent election of President Barack Obama (The Amazing Spider-Man #853).

The image of the crime-fighting superhero has since become a part of the national dialog and an enduring part of American culture (Reynolds, 1992; Wright, 2001). Although the depiction of superheroes as crime fighters is a common comic book theme, the representation of issues pertaining to crime varies across comic books and their superhero protagonists (Vollum & Adkinson, 2003). For instance, the Punisher is often depicted as vigilante out for revenge, leaving a bloody trail in his wake (Phillips & Strobl, 2006). Other heroes, such as Superman, Batman, and Spiderman, however have a moral objection to taking a life, regardless of the gravity of the situation.

Since the publication of the first superhero stories, which began with Superman, the superhero genre has enjoyed great longevity. The first Superman comic book was published in 1938 with Action Comics #1, and the first appearance of Batman was in Detective Comics #27 in 1939. Over 70 years since the publication of those first superhero comics with Superman and Batman, superhero stories have permeated nearly every facet of popular culture. In the 1940s, superheroes appeared in the Saturday morning serials of the time, and later emerged in television series such as Adventures of Superman (1950s) and Batman (1960s). The superhero genre took a big step forward in 1978 when Christopher Reeve took on the role of Superman in Superman: The Movie. The film was both a critical and commercial success and set the stage for a litany of superhero movies to follow.

3 In addition

to appearing on television, film, and radio, superheroes have also been popular subjects in novels, computer and video games, toys, and even Broadway musicals.

COMIC BOOKS AS A UNIT OF ANALYSIS

Although comic books and graphic novels have not received the degree of attention from researchers that other forms of media have enjoyed, there are

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Superhero Justice 49

a handful of academic studies examining comic books for their relevance to criminal justice (Adkinson, 2008; Phillips & Strobl, 2006; Stoddart, 2006; Vollum & Adkinson, 2003). Those works which specifically addressed aspects of criminal justice as portrayed in comic books will be discussed. For a more thorough overview of comic book representations of subjects not related to crime and justice see Stoddart (2006), and Belk (1987), and for a comprehensive history of comic books (see Wright, 2001).

Vollum and Adkinson (2003) discussed the portrayal of crime and justice in comic books by examining the superhero mythos surrounding Batman and Superman. They framed their discussion in terms of three contexts: the structure of the hero’s society (i.e., Superman’s Metropolis and Batman’s Gotham City), the forms of crime and the criminals the heroes are pitted against, and the superheroes themselves. The authors also considered the messages in light of Sutherland’s (1934) framework of criminological inquiry, including the representation of law, breaking the law, and reactions to breaking the law (Vollum & Adkinson, 2003). Superman and Batman are argued to represent two sides of the same coin with respect to their portrayal or interpretation of the law. For instance, while their perspectives and approaches to crime-fighting are somewhat different, they both depict the law as something to be obeyed, with Superman’s message being that the law is to be respected and Batman’s being that the law is to be feared (Vollum & Adkinson, 2003). The authors also conclude that the overall superhero mythos is one which is oriented toward a conservative point of view in terms of the administration of criminal justice and a focus on maintaining the status quo.

Stoddart (2006), guided by a cultural criminology perspective, examined 52 comic books and graphic novels using discourse analysis to better understand the portrayal of drugs, drug users, and drug trafficking. The author reported three notable findings in terms of the portrayal of drugs in these comic narratives: first, that drug use was portrayed as a negative activity; second, drug references were typically focused on hard drugs (e.g., cocaine); and third, drug users were portrayed as distinct from drug dealers (Stoddart, 2006). Consistent with Vollum and Adkinson (2003), Stoddart’s analysis also identified conservative models of crime and justice. In addition, the comic book narratives dealing with the issue of drugs portrayed vigilante justice as the norm, with aspects of the criminal justice system (e.g., police and prison) existing only at a peripheral level. Stoddart argues that this model of vigilante justice is characterized by the superhero acting as a complement to the official justice system, and the superheroes’ willingness to use violence, but a reluctance to kill the offender.

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BRADFORD W. REYNS AND BILLY HENSON50

Like Stoddart (2006), Phillips and Strobl (2006) utilized cultural criminology in their analysis of 20 best-selling contemporary comic books. The authors’ strategy was to read a broad collection of comic books rather than focusing primarily on the more popular or mainstream superheroes or comic books (as this study does). The authors reported that in their sample of comics the authorities were often unable to combat crime problems on their own, and were often portrayed as either outgunned or incompetent. This is argued to be a possible explanation for why extralegal solutions to crime in the form of vigilantism by superheroes, often involving use of force or violence, are acceptable in the comic book world of superheroes. These two points (depiction of authorities and use of force/violence) are also measured in the current study, allowing for comparison across studies.

Adkinson (2008) wrote that comic books can provide valuable insights into how crime and justice are portrayed in popular culture. Comic books can prove especially useful when considered in conjunction with the evolution of the Comics Code Authority (CCA), a body which outlines how crime, criminals, and the criminal justice system can and cannot be portrayed in comic books (Adkinson, 2008; Nyberg, 1998a, 1998b). For instance, one of the six stipulations of the Comics Code regarding crime and justice is that, ‘‘If crime is depicted it shall be as a sordid and unpleasant activity’’ (Adkinson, 2008, p. 246). The influence of the CCA has waned over the years, but Adkinson argues that a challenge to the Code in 1971 by The Amazing Spider-Man’s writers is a useful illustration of the ideas of cultural criminology. Over the course of three issues, this comic series prominently featured drug-related issues in the story, which was a violation of the CCA’s guidelines. The notion in cultural criminology that crime and criminal justice are best understood within the cultural context they occur in, is well-illustrated with this example. Adkinson (2008, p. 257) contends that, ‘‘the present case study offers a unique glimpse into how these forces socially construct the realities of criminal justice.’’

The present study will add to this body of work by making three important improvements over past studies. First, many of the published works linking comic books and crime have not been data-driven. Second, those studies that have used data collected from comic books and graphic novels have had relatively small sample sizes. This study seeks to address both of these issues by analyzing data collected via content analysis of 166 comic books and graphic novels. Third, this study examines multiple criminal justice themes that have not been explored in previous examinations of comic books and graphic novels. These include issues of due process, crime control, victimization, crime prevention, and the portrayal of criminal justice officials.

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Superhero Justice 51

PRESENT STUDY

Comic books and graphic novels from the modern-age (mid-1980s to present) of comics were examined in an effort to better understand the ways in which crime and justice are portrayed in comic books. The comics and graphic novels included in this analysis were published by DC Comics, one of the two titans of the comic book industry (Wright, 2001). Those comics included in this analysis were drawn from stories involving Superman and Batman as the protagonists. This was done for two reasons: first, these characters are two of the most popular and prolific characters in the comic mythos; second, they present an interesting dichotomy with regard to their respective crime fighting philosophies and tactics (Vollum & Adkinson, 2003). In fact, at a general level it can be argued that these two heroes represent the due process and crime control approaches to crime, respectively (Packer, 1968). Particular emphasis is placed on identifying themes of criminal justice, including crime control, due process, crime prevention, use of force, and portrayals of criminal justice system actors.

Data

In order to perform the most appropriate analysis of comics involving Batman and Superman, and in turn their separate depictions of justice, a purposive sample was utilized, which includes many of the most popular storylines created by fan favorite writers and artists over the past two decades (e.g., Frank Miller, Jeph Loeb, Jim Lee, Mark Millar, and Michael Turner).

4 Thirty three storylines were chosen, crossing over 166 different

comic books. The 166 chosen comic books equate to 5,660 pages. A complete list of the comic books included in this analysis can be seen in Appendix A. For ease of analysis, the total sample of comic books was divided into three subsets. The first subset depicts Superman acting alone and includes 49 comic books. The second subset, including 58 comic books, depicts Batman acting alone. The final subset portrays the characters acting together and includes 59 comic books.

Methods

As previously stated, the central data collection technique that was used for the present study was content analysis (for an overview, see Weber, 1990).

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BRADFORD W. REYNS AND BILLY HENSON52

During the data collection process, the authors utilized a pre-designed code sheet based on a review of current literature and a page-by-page examination of five separate comic books featuring five of the most popular title characters, including Green Lantern, Incredible Hulk, Supergirl, Spiderman, and The Flash. As we examined only comic books featuring Superman and Batman, these comics were not included in the research sample. In addition to basic comic book identification information, the code sheet was designed to capture information on use of force, crime prevention actions, police interactions, and criminal activity. The complete code sheet appears in Appendix B. Data were collected for each category of the code sheet and averaged using the number of pages in each comic. This standardization technique was used to produce a common unit of analysis (pages) to reduce any bias that may result from a few very long comics/ graphic novels. The comic books examined ranged from 22 to 78 pages, with an average length of 34 pages.

Before the coding process, the sample of chosen comic books was divided up between the two authors by storylines, and each author coded approximately 50% of the sample. In order to determine the reliability across coders, a test of the interrater reliability was performed. Both authors coded four of the same comic books, one from each of the four different storylines. It was found that the intraclass correlation coefficient, as well as the Cronbach’s Alpha value, was above 0.90 for all four comic books, indicating a high level of interrater reliability with little individual rater bias.

Measures of Variables

As can be seen in Table 1, the variables examined in this study are divided into four main categories: comic information, use of aggression, crime prevention acts, and police interaction and behaviors. The first category, comic information, contains variables that describe general information about the sample of comic books. The character variable is a count of how many comic books in which Superman, Batman, or both appear. This is the most important variable in this portion of the analysis, as it allows us to distinguish between characters and their actions. The pages variable is a measure of the number of pages per comic book. As aforementioned, all other data were standardized by the number of pages in each comic book. The final variable in the comic information category is general theme. This variable captures the overall criminal justice- related theme of the comic book (0 ¼ crime control, 1 ¼ due process).

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Superhero Justice 53

T a b le

1 .

V a ri a b le s,

S c a le s, a n d D e sc ri p ti v e S ta ti st ic s.

V a ri a b le s

S c a le

M e a n

S ta n d a rd

D e v ia ti o n

R a n g e

N

C o m ic

in fo rm

a ti o n

C h a ra c te r

(1 ¼

S u p er m a n , 2 ¼

B a tm

a n , 3 ¼

B o th )

– –

1 – 3

1 6 6

P a g e s

(N u m b e r o f p a g e s)

3 4 .1 0

8 .6 1 5

2 2 – 7 8

5 6 6 0

G en e ra l th e m e

(1 ¼

C ri m e c o n tr o l, 2 ¼

d u e p ro c es s)

1 .1 3

0 .3 3 9

1 – 2

1 1 7

U se

o f a g g re ss io n

T o ta l a c ts

(N u m b e r o f a g g re ss iv e a c ts )

0 .1 9 4

0 .2 4 8

0 – 2 .4 2

1 1 4 5

T o ta l u se

o f fo rc e

(T o ta l n u m b e r o f u se

o f fo rc e )

0 .1 6 6

0 .2 3 5

0 – 2 .4 0

9 8 6

J u st ifi e d u se

o f fo rc e

(N u m b e r o f ju st ifi e d u se

o f fo rc e )

0 .1 0 4

0 .1 2 1

0 – 0 .7 1

5 8 8

U n ju st ifi e d u se

o f fo rc e

(N u m b e r o f u n ju st ifi ed

u se

o f fo rc e )

0 .0 5 9

0 .0 5 9

0 – 2 .2 9

3 8 2

O th er

u se

o f fo rc e

(N u m b e r o f o th e r u se

o f fo rc e )

0 .0 0 3

0 .0 0 3

0 – 0 .0 9

1 6

U se

o f v e rb a l th re a ts

(N u m b e r o f v e rb a l th re a ts )

0 .0 1 0

0 .0 2 1

0 – 0 .0 9

5 5

C ri m e p re v e n ti o n a c ts

T o ta l c ri m e p re v en ti o n a c ts

(T o ta l n u m b e r o f c ri m e p re v en ti o n a c ts )

0 .0 7 9

0 .2 0 3

0 – 2 .3 3

4 9 3

P ro te c t in n o ce n ts

(N u m b e r o f ti m es

p ro te ct e d in n o c e n t)

0 .0 4 6

0 .0 8 8

0 – 0 .7 1

2 7 7

P ro te c t c ri m in a ls

(N u m b e r o f ti m es

p ro te ct e d c ri m in a ls )

0 .0 0 2

0 .0 0 7

0 – 0 .0 4

1 0

P ro te c t p ro p e rt y

(N u m b e r o f ti m es

p ro te ct e d p ro p e rt y )

0 .0 0 1

0 .0 0 6

0 – 0 .0 6

5

O th er

c ri m e p re v en ti o n a c ts

(N u m b e r o f o th e r c ri m e p re v e n ti o n a c ts )

0 .0 3 0

0 .1 7 9

0 – 2 .2 4

2 0 1

P o li c e in te ra c ti o n a n d b e h a v io rs

C h a ra c te r fo ll o w s la w

(N u m b e r o f ti m es

c h a ra ct e r fo ll o w s la w )

0 .0 0 1

0 .0 0 1

0 – 0 .0 6

7

C h a ra c te r b re a k s la w

(N u m b e r o f ti m es

c h a ra ct e r b re a k s la w )

0 .0 4 8

0 .0 4 8

0 – 2 .3 3

3 4 3

C h a ra c te r w o rk s w it h p o li c e

(N u m b e r o f ti m es

c h a ra ct e r w o rk s w it h p o li c e )

0 .0 1 0

0 .0 1 0

0 – 0 .2 9

6 0

C h a ra c te r w o rk s a g a in st

p o li c e

(N u m b e r o f ti m e s c h a ra ct e r w o rk s a g a in st

p o li c e )

0 .0 1 1

0 .0 1 1

0 – 0 .4 2

1 0 8

P o li ce

c o rr u p t

(N u m b e r o f ti m es

p o li c e a c t im

p ro p e rl y )

0 .0 0 2

0 .0 0 2

0 – 0 .0 9

1 4

P o li ce

c o n d o n e c h a ra c te r a c ti o n s

(0 ¼

N o , 1 ¼

y e s)

0 .3 8

0 .4 9 8

0 – 1

2 1

C h a ra c te r a c ti o n s fo r re v e n g e

(N u m b e r o f a c ti o n s p er fo rm

e d fo r re v e n g e )

0 .0 1 6

0 .0 8 4

0 – 0 .9 4

1 0 4

C h a ra c te r a c ti o n s to

fu rt h e r in v e st ig a ti o n

(N u m b e r o f a c ti o n s p er fo rm

e d a s p a rt

o f

in v e st ig a ti o n )

0 .2 7 0

0 .0 7 2

0 – 0 .8 2

1 3 6

N o te : N

v a lu e s re p re se n t th e to ta l n u m b er

a c ro ss

a ll 1 6 6 c o m ic

b o o k s, w h e re a s th e M e a n , S ta n d a rd

D e v ia ti o n , a n d R a n g e v a lu e s a re

ta k e n

fr o m

th e st a n d a rd iz e d v a lu e s (b y n u m b e r o f p a g e s in

e a ch

c o rr e sp o n d in g c o m ic

b o o k ).

BRADFORD W. REYNS AND BILLY HENSON54

Information for this variable is obtained from an overall assessment of all of the main character(s) actions in that particular comic book. For example, acknowledgement of civil rights is considered to fall under the guise of a due process theme.

The first variable in the use of aggression category is total aggressive acts. This variable is simply a count of all aggressive actions taken by the main character(s), including any use of force and the use of verbal threats. The total use of force variable includes any acts in which the main character(s) uses physical force in any way and is further divided into three subcategories, including justified use of force, unjustified use of force, and other use of force. Justified use of force most typically includes acts of physical force that were intended to save an innocent person or subdue a criminal. Unjustified use of force includes those physical acts that are considered unreasonable, such as assaulting a criminal once he has been subdued or causing physical injury when it is not necessary. The other use of force subcategory most often includes acts that do not involve criminals or victims. The most frequent example is a fight between two protagonists, such as Superman and Batman. Finally, the last variable in the use of aggression category is the use of verbal threats. This measure is a count of every instance in which one of the main characters verbally threatened a criminal, police officer, or another superhero. If physical violence occurred during the threat, it was counted only as a use of force.

The third category of variables is crime prevention acts. This category includes five variables designed to capture any actions taken by the main character(s) with the intention of preventing crime or protecting people or property. Total crime prevention acts are simply a count of all crime prevention actions taken by the main character(s). Under the total variable are four subcategories, including protecting innocents, protecting criminals, protecting property, and other crime prevention acts. Protecting innocents is a count of every situation in which the main character(s) prevents an innocent person from being physically harmed or victimized. Similarly, protecting criminals is a count of the situations in which a criminal is protected from being physically harmed or victimized. Most often the harm is the result of his or her own actions or the actions of another criminal. As the name implies, protecting property is a measure of the instances in which the main character(s) prevents property from being damaged or destroyed. Finally, the other crime prevention acts variable includes every other action in which the main character(s) prevented or stopped criminal activity. A common example is the interception of criminal offenders before they reach the crime target, such as a bank.

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The final category of variables is police interaction and behaviors. This category includes numerous variables describing the interaction between the main character(s) and the police, as well as the legality of the behavior of both the police and main character(s). The first two variables – following the law and breaking the law – symbolize directly opposing actions taken by the main character(s). They represent counts of actions in which the main character(s) clearly broke the law or made a conscious decision not to break the law. Similarly, the third and fourth variables – working with the police and working against the police – also go hand-in-hand and exhibit two opposing actions. Actions integrated in the working with police variable include notifying the police of a crime and/or turning criminal offenders over to the police. However, actions under the working against the police variable include things like directly assaulting a police officer or withholding evidence that could be used to make an arrest. The police corruption variable is a count of every instance in which a police officer was shown doing something illegal, such as accepting bribes or using unjustified force. The police condones the character’s actions variable is a dichotomous measure (0 ¼ no, 1 ¼ yes). It was recorded for each comic book as a whole, rather than counted throughout. This technique was adopted because of the extremely low number of incidents in which the police are clearly shown to approve or disapprove of the main character(s) actions. Further, as it was only found in the storyline of a single character – Batman – it will not be included in any analysis. Finally, the last two variables – acts of revenge and acts to further the investigation – are intended to represent instances in which the main character(s) either act(s) based on emotion and/or rationality. Acts of revenge are often viewed negatively, as an outburst of uncontrolled emotion. However, acts that further investigation show clear thinking and rationality. In this case, both are measured as counts of actions taken by the main character(s).

RESULTS

As previously discussed, the data utilized in the current study is divided into three separate groups – data pertaining to Superman, data pertaining to Batman, and data pertaining to both characters together. This approach will be continued for the data analysis process. The following examinations will first briefly discuss general themes found across all the comic books examined. Then, a more detailed discussion will follow highlighting themes associated with each specific character – Superman and Batman – and the two characters together.

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General Themes

In examining the presence of themes, it is clear that there is a heavy criminal justice influence throughout the sample of comics. Both the Superman and Batman characters are frequently portrayed as crime fighters and/or detectives. With that in mind, actions and references to both crime control and due process are common across the entire sample. However, crime control is by far the more dominant theme. Of the 122 comic books, in which a clear criminal justice theme could be seen, 86.9% display themes of crime control, whereas only 13.1% display clear themes of due process. Further, the characters are shown to be very aggressive in their actions toward criminal offenders and sometimes even victims. As seen in Fig. 1, across the entire sample, the main characters alone commit 1,145 aggressive acts, averaging 7 aggressive actions per comic book. Physical force was used 986 times, with justified use of force occurring 588 times and unjustified use of force occurring 382 times.

Although crime control is the dominant theme, there are also numerous other themes found throughout the sample. One of the more common themes

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39 Fig. 1. Criminal Justice Acts and Themes Found Across Entire Sample of Comic Books.

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is crime prevention. Both the Superman and Batman characters spend a large amount of time attempting to prevent crime before it occurs. Most frequently, crime prevention comes in the form of protecting potential victims (or innocents). Of the 493 crime prevention actions taken, 277 of them are intended to protect potential victims. Further, the characters are often shown working with police to prevent crime. Although neither character has any actual law enforcement authority, they were shown to work directly with police on 60 separate occasions. Finally, while both Superman and Batman are considered to be heroes, as with many comic book superheroes, they are sometimes portrayed in a very antihero manner. Though they often work with the police, they were found to work against the police on 108 different occasions. Further, they also frequently broke the law. Across the entire sample, Superman and/or Batman were found to break the law 343 times.

Character Analysis

Although both Superman and Batman are seen as superheroes that fight for justice, they do so in clearly different ways. As seen in Fig. 2, when examining the comic books featuring Superman alone, due process is the

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39 Fig. 2. Criminal Justice Themes Portrayed by Superman, Batman, and Both.

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dominant theme. In fact, it is the only theme, accounting for 100% of the 10 comic books displaying a clear theme. However, crime control is by far the dominant theme throughout the comic books featuring Batman alone. Of the 57 Batman comic books displaying a clear criminal justice theme, 100% of them portray crime control. With the comic books featuring both characters acting together, there is more variation in the portrayed criminal justice theme, though not much. Of the 55 comic books displaying a clear theme, crime control was dominant in 49, whereas due process was dominant in only 6.

In examining the aggressive actions taken by each character separately and together, several patterns emerge. First, as can be seen in Fig. 3, Batman much more frequently commits aggressive acts, averaging more than twice as many actions per page as Superman. Further, Batman also uses physical force much more often than Superman, especially unjustified use of force, which typically includes assault. Interestingly, with the comic books featuring both characters working together, the rates of aggressive actions are balanced. With the exception of justified use of force, rates from the comic books featuring the characters together fall between the rates for the comic books featuring the characters separately for almost every category of aggressive actions. This finding may imply that the characters balance each other.

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39 Fig. 3. Aggressive Actions of Superman, Batman, and Both.

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When examining the crime prevention actions taken by both characters separately and together, patterns are not as consistent as those for aggressive actions. Batman is shown to commit almost twice as many crime prevention acts as Superman; however, Superman is shown to protect more innocents, or potential crime victims. This phenomenon is most likely due to the fact that Superman often protects large groups of individuals at a time, whereas Batman typically protects one individual at a time. When portrayed working together, Superman and Batman often perform high numbers of crime prevention actions. Further, they are shown to protect more innocents when working together than when working alone. In both cases, the high rates are most likely due to the fact that Superman and Batman often work together during drastic events, such as bombings or attempted mass murders (Fig. 4) AU :1.

Finally, when examining the characters’ interaction with police and their behaviors, two clear patterns emerge. First, Batman is much more likely to interact with the police. Comic books featuring the characters separately show Batman both working with police and performing investigations much more often than Superman. This is most likely because Batman more frequently deals with street crime, whereas Superman more frequently deals with international or world threats. Secondly, Batman is also much more

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likely to work against the police. Not only does Batman work against the police more often, he is also more likely to act out of revenge. However, the clearest distinction between the two is in the characters’ willingness to break the law. Although Superman is shown to break the law only nine times, Batman is shown breaking the law 264 times. Finally, as with the other categories examined, when working together Superman and Batman appear to balance each other out, with the rates for almost every category falling between the rates for the individual characters (Fig. 5).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

If understanding media and culture, and by extension, comic books, is a requirement for understanding crime and criminal justice as suggested by cultural criminology (Ferrell & Sanders, 1995), then the above analysis has moved us one small step closer. The dominant model of criminal justice that emerged from our analysis was one of the crime controls (vs. due process). According to Packer (1968), although these two models are ideal types, and unlikely to ever exist in their pure forms, in the comic book world anything

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Fig. 5. Police Interactions and Behaviors of Superman, Batman, and Both.

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is possible. The crime control model is characterized by: an emphasis on preventing and repressing crime; efficiency in investigating, apprehending, and prosecuting criminals; and a presumption that the accused is guilty. This model of criminal justice has been compared to an assembly line in which each component of the criminal justice system is working in harmony toward the ultimate goal of controlling crime. In contrast, the due process model is characterized by fairness of the law and an emphasis on the due process rights of criminal justice participants. Under this model, it would be more important to let a guilty person whose rights were violated go free than to violate those rights to punish the guilty party. The due process model has been likened unto an obstacle course, where with each successive stage in the criminal justice process, it becomes more difficult to carry cases forward. Under this model, abuses of power or violation of the law in pursuit of justice are antithetical to true justice. Although depictions of both of these criminal justice models were identified throughout the sample in this study, there were far more examples of crime control than due process. Interestingly, the polarized nature of these two models was borne out in two respective superheroes, with crime control being most associated with Batman, and due process being exclusively associated with Superman. The linkage between these heroes and their respective models of justice is also consistent with their characters’ personalities. Superman, after all, has also been referred to as the ‘‘Big Blue Boy Scout,’’ and Batman is well-known to for his shadowy image as a solitary ‘‘Dark Knight’’ (e.g., Morris, 2005; Waid, 2005).

Consistent with work by Phillips and Strobl (2006) and Stoddart (2006), vigilante justice through use of force was a frequent theme throughout this sample of comic books and graphic novels. Although in this study portrayals of the police as overwhelmed or incompetent were not precisely measured, the sentiment was echoed throughout the various storylines included in the sample. The inadequacy of the police, especially in the Batman story arcs, in part justify his need to take matters into his own hands, and justify his extralegal methods of crime fighting. Many times, the Gotham Police in the Batman comics were depicted as corrupt themselves, further justifying his vigilantism. This may also explain why Batman was so frequently depicted working against the police and breaking the law (Tate, 2008).

This study is one of the few attempts to understand how the criminal justice system and system actors are portrayed in comic books and graphic novels. Its scope is clearly limited to a small subset of comic book stories, especially considering the focus exclusively on modern age comics and only two superheroes. Although our analysis was focused on comic books and

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graphic novels featuring primarily two superheroes, these two are the most long-lived and arguably most popular comic book characters in history and of the day. In addition, the analysis was based on a sample of 166 comic books and graphic novels, which to our knowledge is the largest content analysis of comic books for the purposes of studying crime and justice themes to date. Despite these limitations, this study has value since it furthers and expands upon previous work in the area.

UNCITED REFERENCE

Henson & Reyns (2010).

NOTES

1. As an example, The Dark Knight, a film based on Bob Kane’s Batman character, was the largest grossing film of 2008, the second highest grossing film of all time domestically, and the fourth highest grossing film of all time worldwide with over one billion dollars in lifetime grosses (Box Office Mojo). Clearly this film reached a wide audience. 2. Some titles are published at irregular intervals ranging from every few months

to once a year. 3. In fact, since the production of Superman (1978), almost 90 comic-based

movies have been released in theaters in the United States alone, grossing over $8 billion (Box Office Mojo, 2009). In the 2000s, multiple high-budget superhero or comic book-inspired movies released every year. 2008 for example saw the release of The Dark Knight, Iron Man, Hancock, The Incredible Hulk, Wanted, Hellboy II: The Golden Army, and The Spirit. 4. The popularity of the selected comic books/graphic novels was determined

through an extensive review of fan websites and comic price guides, as well as personal knowledge.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Dan Lytle for his helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article. Any flaws are the sole responsibility of the authors.

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APPENDIX A

Action Comics # 769–770

Action Comics # 812–813

Action Comics # 844–846

Action Comics # 851

Action Comics # 855–863

Action Comics # 866–870

Action Comics Annuals # 11

The Adventures of Superman # 582–583

The Adventures of Superman # 626

All-Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder # 1–9

Batman # 426–429

Batman # 608–619

Batman # 651–654

Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight # 16–20

Batman: The Dark Knight Returns # 1–4

Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again # 1–3

Batman: The Long Halloween # 1–13

Detective Comics # 817–820

Detective Comics # 849

Legends of the Dark Knight: Halloween Special # 1–3

Superman # 160–161

Superman # 202–215

Superman # 625

Superman # 681

Superman/Batman # 1–50

Superman: Emperor Joker # 1

Superman: The Man of Steel # 104–105

Superman: The New Krypton # 1

Superman: The Red Son # 1–3

World’s Finest # 1–3

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APPENDIX B1

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