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Qualitative Research Designs

A s we discussed in Chapter 1, research studies use either qualitative or quantitative methods or a combination of both methods. The type of research you choose is governed mostly by the research questions that

are posed. For example, a social worker may meet someone who is a child wel- fare worker and begin to ask questions such as “How did you become a child welfare worker?” or “What is it like for you to investigate a child abuse case?” These exploratory questions may lend themselves to a qualitative study because little is known about the experiences of child welfare workers. In this chapter, we will examine the fundamentals of qualitative research. We will discuss what qualitative research means, how it is conducted, and some basic strategies for conducting a qualitative research study.

H OW I S QUA L I TAT I V E R E S E A R C H U S E D ?

Qualitative research is used if little or nothing is known about a subject. In order to develop a greater understanding of an issue, we need to use methods that allow us to investigate a phenomenon through the use of researcher observation and assessment. All research methods are equally useful and very necessary; however, they utilize different strategies and ask different research questions to gain knowl- edge. It is also important to note here that each method also has its own inherent strengths and limitations. When conducting qualitative research, we gain a tre- mendous amount of insight into the issue that is being examined, but there are limitations. Many people do not value qualitative (exploratory) research. A second limitation is the inherent bias in this research design. However, quantitative re- search carries with it its own set of limitations. Quantitative researchers strive to be objective and free of bias and not affect the research outcome, but some argue that some amount of bias is inherent in all research and being bias free is not possible.

Two strategies used by qualitative researchers are describing the information collected (descriptive inquiry) and speculating on the information collected (speculative inquiry).

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D E S C R I P T I V E I NQU I R Y

Descriptive inquiry is the strategy used in qualitative research to develop a greater understanding of issues by describing individual experiences. For in- stance, some research examines issues related to lifestyle, such as Sinetar’s Ordinary People as Monks and Mystics: Lifestyles for Self- Discovery (1986), which describes the quest by many people to find spiritual meaning in a materialistic universe. Other qualitative research may build on existing knowledge, such as Barton’s Stripped: Inside the Lives of Exotic Dancers (2006), in which the au- thor uses the participants’ experiences to engage long- standing debates over the meanings of femininity and sexuality. These studies distinguish themselves by examining symbolic understandings through the words of the informants. These studies might typify respondents’ attitudes, but patterns in the samples are often addressed. In both of these cases, the researchers are exploring the individual level of understanding (how each individual describes his or her experiences) as well as the collective level of understanding (what is common and not common about the experiences).

Social workers frequently use the strategy of descriptive inquiry in agency practice. For instance, in documentation, it is valuable to record the client’s statements (“I am always tired and I cry easily”) as evidence to support an impres- sion (the client is depressed). Client assessments are the recorded descriptions of clients’ statements as well as social workers’ observations and impressions. Soliciting feedback, such as clients’ verbal and written comments, is another im- portant source of descriptive inquiry. Two ways to get verbal comments from clients are to interview them individually or to hold a focus group. A focus group is an open discussion in which individuals share their opinions about or emo- tional responses to a particular subject. For instance, a focus group can be used to gain information on what residents think about the current living conditions at a shelter. This information can be used to get a better understanding of their experiences or to meet the individual needs of residents, for example, by installing a sliding shower head for a resident who is very tall or very short. Researchers at a shelter might collect written information by asking residents to journal their thoughts, feelings, and experiences or by implementing a system that allows consumers to offer written comments, like a comment box.

It is not uncommon for agencies to use data collected from assessments and from consumers’ feedback to describe the issues related to the popula- tion they serve in reports to boards of directors and in presentations to the public. These reports and presentations create a greater understanding of clients’ experiences and empathy for them among others who have never had the experiences themselves. It can also provide knowledge that is useful in supporting a request for a program or resources from grant- funding sources to improve the lives of clients.

Qualitative researchers want to discover more about the interactions between people and their environment. They want to gain an in- depth understanding of

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what a person is feeling, thinking, and experiencing. For example, people who want to fully understand the perspectives of someone addicted to gambling can learn a great deal by reading an addict’s comments on the many lures of the games. It is not important to be able to make generalizations to all people— just to know what this person is experiencing.

S P E C U L AT I V E I N QU I R Y

In qualitative studies, data analysis is a process of speculative inquiry, in which the collected information is used to generate common themes. For instance, we might ask, “What has this been like for you?” As we ask several different participants the same question, we can begin to review their answers to see if any common themes are emerging; that is, we can see if people are saying similar things about the same topic. This inductive method of going from the individual to the collective can lead us to generate new hypotheses and theories based on the knowledge we have gained.

The process of speculative inquiry is a form of inductive research, which is the gathering of information based on observations and quotes that is organ- ized into common themes. As more information is acquired, we increase our understanding and can develop research questions about the phenomenon at hand. Deductive research is the process of reasoning that moves from a general hypothesis or theory to specific results through the use of quantitative methods.

QUA L I TAT I V E R E S E A R C H M E T H O D S

A discussion of qualitative research needs to begin with the various types of qualitative designs. Essentially, there are five main research designs in quali- tative research: ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenological study, case study, and biography. Biography is based on a single person’s life reflections and is not widely used in social and behavioral sciences research. For that reason we will confine our discussion to the four other designs. While phe- nomenology uses descriptive inquiry as a strategy for understanding and grounded theory uses speculative inquiry, ethnography and case study use both descriptive and speculative inquiry strategies. At times, it may seem that some of the designs overlap and duplicate others. We will try to make these distinctions as clear as possible.

Phenomenolog ica l Desig n

Phenomenology is a type of research design that seeks to understand the lived experience of the individuals who are being studied (their perceptions, thoughts,

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ideas, and experiences). Phenomenological research in some ways embodies the field of qualitative research because it is concerned with gaining an in- depth un- derstanding of the experience of the individual under study. Phenomenological research uses descriptive inquiry. Sometimes researchers become research participants themselves to gain firsthand knowledge. When researchers em- ploy this technique, they make no attempt to be detached; rather, they actually immerse themselves in the experience. They then rely on their own interpreta- tion of the experience (i.e., they use introspection) to make sense of what they experienced. This is called participatory research.

Perhaps you are working in an agency where many of your clients are referred for welfare assistance and you want to be able to explain what they can expect when they apply. You could conduct a study in which you make an appointment at the local public assistance office and go through the process of applying for public assistance. At each step of the process, you would keep careful notes of your experiences, feelings, and reactions. You would encounter others going through the process and could gather information from their comments. You then could use this experience to share with clients what it was like for you to ex- perience the application process for welfare assistance. This would be an example of a descriptive inquiry as part of a phenomenological study.

Grou nded Theor y Desig n

Grounded theory is a type of research design that utilizes a recursive form of question and analysis. The researcher begins with a set of questions often referred to as grand tour questions. These are large, overarching questions that identify the broad intent of a research study and are based on existing knowledge (i.e., experience, knowledge from others, tradition, and prior re- search). The questions or requests are open- ended; for example, “Describe for me what it was like for you,” or “What was it like for you?” In the interviews, the researcher collects the information from the participants. A review of the information often leads to more specific questions, resulting in a speculative inquiry.

In social work practice this is done to identify primary issues or problems. For example, often a family will seek help only after bearing the burden of a problem for a long period of time. By this time, many more problems and issues have emerged, and it is difficult to identify the primary or precipitating issues. Therefore, you start out by asking a broad open- ended question such as “What brings you here today?” You listen to a plethora of concerns and then ask for something more specific, for example, “What would you say are your top three concerns?” This leads to more specific questions, such as “What have you done in the past to get relief?” and “Have you experienced this problem before?” After collecting enough answers from family members and adding your own observations and practice experience, you can now develop common themes

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to use to identify the primary or precipitating problems (going from specific to general).

Eth nog raphic Desig n

Ethnography is a research design that is centered on cultural behavior. Ethnographic research seeks to record the cultural aspects of a group (these may include such aspects as language, dress, social norms, and behaviors). It is con- cerned with the organization of society and the study of humans. Ethnography uses both descriptive and speculative inquiry to evolve understanding.

This design might be useful in work with subcultures such as teen gangs. A so- cial worker working with gang members would want to find out as much as possible about the culture of various gangs. For instance, what are the colors, the gang signs, and the common clothing; how do members get initiated into the gangs; and how can they get out? Which gangs are rivals, and which gangs use violence? These are important cultural questions that can be explored to help the social worker studying gang- related practices. Many cultural practices are shaped and reshaped through trial and error, which makes it difficult for members to identify, describe, or define what they do. Rules are sometimes more implicit than explicit. Thus ethnography relies as much on observations as on interviews.

Case Study

A case study is a detailed analysis of a single person or event (or sometimes a limited number of people or events). Case studies are interesting because of the uniqueness of the case being studied. This creates a limitation because the case is not representative of other cases. The data you collect from a former foster child living in a rural area whose foster parents paid no attention to her might be similar to that from other foster children in the same situation but might not accurately reflect the experiences of foster children from urban areas or more attentive families. Another problem with case studies has to do with objec- tivity. The person who is presenting the case usually has some preconceived bias (opinion based on knowledge from his or her own experiences, knowledge of the experiences of others, or tradition). Otherwise, why choose to study this case? However, it is acceptable in case studies for a bias to play a role in the interpreta- tion of events and the selection of the facts to include in the case.

Let’s say that you are a mother of twins and that you want to do a case study of one mother with twins and her weekly routine. While collecting information (observations and comments), you use your own experience to interpret what is happening. For instance, while one twin is talking to the mother, the other is getting a forbidden cookie. This may be interpreted as the mother not being able

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to be in two places at once. However, as a mother of twins, you have experienced similar scenarios that have led you to believe that the twins might be working together to reach a goal. The following are some types of case studies.

Illustrative Case Studies Illustrative case studies describe a domain; they use one or two instances to ana- lyze a situation. This helps interpret other data, especially when researchers have reason to believe that readers know too little about the study parameters. These case studies serve to make the unfamiliar familiar and give readers a common language to use to discuss the topic. The chosen site for inclusion should typify important variations and contain a small number of cases to sustain readers’ in- terest. The use of illustrative case studies may involve some pitfalls. Such studies require presentation of in- depth information on each case, but the researcher may lack time on- site for in- depth examination. In addition, it may be difficult to hold the interest of those being interviewed in order to gain the in- depth in- formation desired. The most serious problem involves the selection of instances. Cases must adequately represent the situation or program under study. For in- stance, a researcher wanting to illustrate the role of a foster parent would not want to select only new parents to observe or interview as the participants in the study would not provide enough in- depth information on what this role entails.

Exploratory Case Studies Exploratory (or pilot) case studies can be conducted before the implementation of a large- scale investigation. For instance, where considerable uncertainty exists about a program’s mission, goals, and services, an exploratory case study can help researchers identify questions, select measurement samples, and develop meas- urement tools. The greatest pitfall in the exploratory study involves premature conclusions: the findings may seem convincing enough but are inappropriate for release as conclusions. For instance, an exploratory study soliciting social workers’ opinions regarding clients’ failure to show up for appointments might lead to conclusions that clients are not motivated, that the client– worker rela- tionship was never formed, or that the worker was overburdened with cases and could not devote the time necessary to the client. However, if the study solicited clients’ opinions, the results might show that lack of transportation, lack of avail- able child care, and lack of money to purchase gas or child care are predominant factors in no- show rates. Other pitfalls include researchers’ tendencies to extend the study beyond the point of gaining new information and inadequate represen- tation of diversity within the study.

Critical Instance Case Studies Critical instance case studies examine one or a few sites for one of two purposes. For instance, a researcher might want to observe the roles of social workers and patients in an emergency room. A very common application involves the exam- ination of a situation of unique interest in which the researchers have little or

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no interest in generalizability. In the case of the emergency room observations, the purpose might be to examine the interactions between social workers and families when a patient has died. A second, rarer application entails calling into question a generalized or universal assertion and testing it by examining one instance. Again, in the emergency room scenario, this could involve testing a specific crisis intervention technique used by social workers with families when a patient has died. This method is particularly useful for answering cause- and- effect questions about the instance of concern (e.g., Does the crisis intervention technique reduce the effects of the crisis as intended?). Inadequate identification of the evaluation question is the most serious pitfall in this type of study. Correct application of the critical instance case study involves recognizing the under- lying concerns. In the emergency room scenario, studying a crisis intervention technique used with a family whose member died in a car accident would be a correct application, whereas grief counseling would be a better technique for a family who has prepared for the death of a family member who died from a long- term illness.

Program Effects Case Studies Program effects case studies can determine the impact of programs and make inferences about reasons for success or failure. Data rely on observations and/ or structured materials that are often gathered through mixed- method research designs. In this type of case study, the researcher uses multiple sites to investi- gate why things happen and what the cause of the problem is. This case study uses predetermined themes, and findings are usually thematic and describe site differences. Pitfalls include failure to collect enough data, failure to examine a diverse number of sites, insufficiently trained evaluators, and difficulties in giving evaluators enough data collection latitude to obtain insight without risking bias. One solution would be to conduct the case studies in a set of sites chosen for representativeness and then verify the findings from the case study through targeted examination of administrative data, prior reports, or a survey. This type of case study utilizes methods derived from program evaluation that are discussed in Chapter 9.

Prospective Case Studies In a prospective case study design, the researcher formulates a set of theory- based questions in relation to social or cultural issue under review and then examines these questions at a predetermined follow- up time by using pattern matching or a similar technique to examine observed outcomes in light to the questions that were formulated at the beginning of the study. This type of study usually involves taking a cohort of subjects and watching them over a long period. For instance, you hypothesize that the longer a foster child stays in a foster home, the fewer behavioral problems he or she will exhibit. Therefore, you observe the behaviors of a foster child in care over several months. This type of case study is predomi- nately done using quantitative methods.

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Cumulative Case Studies The cumulative case study method brings together the findings from case studies done at different times. In contrast to the program effect case study, the cumu- lative case study aggregates information from several sites collected at different and even quite extended periods of time. The techniques for ensuring sufficient comparability and quality and for aggregating the information are what consti- tute the “cumulative” part of the methodology. The cumulative case study can have a retrospective focus in which information across studies done in the past is collected. For instance, this can be useful to examine types of interventions used with a particular behavioral problem to identify best- practice outcomes. Or, a cumulative case study can have a prospective outlook in which a series of investigations for different times in the future is designed.

Narrative Case Studies Case studies that present findings in a narrative format are called narrative case studies. This involves presenting the case study as events are unfolding. For in- stance, a narrative case study can relay the events that occur when an individual discovers he or she was adopted by reporting the comments that are made during the discovery process. This can include comments as each new family member (e.g., mother, brother, sister) is discovered. While the findings cannot be generalized, they can be used to identify issues confronting the individual during the discovery process, and this knowledge might be beneficial to other individuals going through the same thing or to professionals working with these individuals.

DATA C O L L E C T I O N

Once you have created a working research question and selected a design, the next step is to begin developing the data collection method. Two of the most common ways data can be collected are through observation and through interviews.

Obser vations

Observations are used to describe the behavior of individuals or groups in their natural settings. Researchers must choose whether to identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observation. For instance, in one study, a researcher lived in a slum district of Boston to observe first- and second- generation immigrants from Italy, and, in another study, a researcher lived and traveled with jazz musicians to figure out how people become marijuana users. This is called overt observational research. The problem with this approach is that, unless the observation is unobtrusive, there may be some subject reactivity. In other words, subjects tend to modify their behavior when they know they are being watched. They portray their ideal selves rather than their true selves. The

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issue of reactivity is especially problematic if those being watched are engaged in a behavior that is illegal or considered unacceptable by others (e.g., cheating on a test, stealing from a parent, or breaking the confidentiality of a client). This effect often decreases with time as, after a while, the subjects forget they are being observed. This is called habituation.

In covert observational research, the researchers do not identify themselves as researchers. Either they mix in with the subjects or they observe from a dis- tance. Some famous covert research studies have involved a researcher becoming a maid without revealing her true identity to her employers and a researcher who checked into a psychiatric facility incognito. The advantages of this approach are that it is not necessary to get the subjects’ cooperation, and the subjects’ behavior will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher. Some researchers have ethical misgivings about the deceit involved in this approach. Determining whether potential harm to those being observed can occur is an important factor to consider before conducting covert research.

The degree to which the researcher involves him- or herself in the study makes a difference in the quality and amount of data he or she will be able to collect. There are four observation roles a researcher can assume:

1. The complete participant is a member of the group being studied and conceals his or her role as a researcher from the group to avoid disrupting normal activity. The disadvantages are that the researcher may lack objectivity, the group members may feel distrustful of the researcher when the research role is revealed, and the ethics of the situation are questionable since the group members are being deceived.

2. In the participant as observer role the researcher is a member of the group being studied, and the group is aware of the research activity. The advantage is that the researcher is a member of the group. This role also has disadvantages in that there is a tradeoff between the depth of the data revealed to the researcher and the level of confidentiality provided to the group for the information they provide.

3. The observer as participant role enables the researcher to participate in the group activities as allowed by its members, yet the main role of the researcher is to collect data, and the group being studied is aware of the researcher’s observation activities. In this role, the researcher is an observer who is not a member of the group; he or she is interested in participating only as a means of conducting better observation and thus generating a more complete understanding of the group’s activities. This peripheral membership role enables the researcher to observe and interact closely enough with members to establish an insider’s identity without participating in those activities constituting the core of group membership.

4. The researcher assumes a complete observer role when he or she is completely hidden from view while observing or is in plain sight in a public setting yet those being studied are unaware that they are being

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observed. In either case, the observation in this stance is unobtrusive and unknown to participants.

Of these four stances, the most ethical approach to observation is the role of the observer as participant as the researcher’s observation activities are known to the group being studied and the researcher’s emphasis is on collecting data, rather than participating in the activity being observed. However, all research roles can be ethically assumed if there is assurance that the potential benefits outweigh the risks for the participants of a study.

Researchers may decide which observational role they assume based on what type of observation is required to gain the information desired. For instance, in descriptive observation, researchers assume that they know nothing, and they observe anything and everything; the disadvantage is that this leads to the collection of information that may or may not be relevant to the study. The second type of observation, focused observation, is information that is culled from ob- servation and supported by interviews in which the participants’ insights guide the researcher’s decisions about what to observe. The third type of observation is selective observation, in which the researcher focuses on different types of activ- ities to delineate the differences between those activities.

The following are tips for conducting observational research:

• Be unobtrusive in your dress and actions. • Become familiar with the setting before beginning to collect data. • Keep your observations short at first to keep from becoming

overwhelmed. • Be honest, but not too technical or detailed in explaining to participants

what you are doing. • Use memory tools to remember information, for example, remembering

key words or the first and last remarks in conversations, especially if you are recording data after participation takes place.

• Actively observe the details you want to record later, such as the interactions occurring in the setting, including who talks to whom, whose opinions are respected, and how decisions are made. Also observe where participants stand or sit, particularly those with power versus those with less power, or men versus women.

• Keep a running observation record. • Be tolerant, adaptable, and flexible.

Inter views

The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees say. Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story be- hind participants’ experiences; therefore, the interviewer can pursue in- depth

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information around the topic. In mixed- method research, interviews may be useful as follow- up to questionnaires or other quantitative data collection methods to further investigate their responses. In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the respondent and is considered a part of the measurement instrument.

The conversational interview has no predetermined questions; this allows the interviewer to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities. During the interview, the interviewer “goes with the flow.” With the interview guide approach, interviewers have some basic questions that are in- tended to ensure that the information in the same general areas is collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach but still allows the researchers a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting infor- mation from the interviewee. The open- ended interview asks the same open- ended questions of all interviewees; this approach facilitates fast interviews that can be easily analyzed and compared. Finally, the fixed- response interview asks the same questions and requires interviewees to choose answers from among the same set of responses. This format is useful for those not experienced in interviewing.

The interviewer has to be well trained in responding to any contingency. The following are tips for interviewing:

• Be familiar with the topic. • Choose a setting with the least distraction. • Explain the purpose of the interview. • Address terms of confidentiality. • Outline the procedure of the interview. • Indicate how long the interview usually takes. • Provide the interviewer’s contact information. • Allow the interviewee to ask questions or express doubts about the

interview. • Prepare a method for recording data, such as audio- recording or

note- taking. • Use simple, easy, and short questions. • Speak slowly and clearly. • Be tolerant, sensitive, and patient when the interviewee expresses

provocative and unconventional opinions. • Avoid digressions from the topic. • Clarify the responses to test the reliability and validity of what the

interviewee says.

Finally, get the respondents comfortable in the interview as soon as possible by asking for some facts before asking about controversial matters. Intersperse fact- based questions throughout the interview. Ask one question at a time, and ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible and provide transitions between major topics or when the respondent has digressed from the topic on which you wish to focus. Co

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The last questions might be formulated to allow respondents to provide any other information they want to add and their impressions of the interview

A N E X A M P L E O F A QUA L I TAT I V E S T U DY

Healthcare workers have noticed a substantial increase in twin births over the past two years. As a social worker in this field, you are interested in preparing parents to deal with issues unique to rearing twins. To do this, you decide to do research to identify common experiences among mothers of twin children. You discover from a brief literature review that very few social work– related studies have been published on this issue. So, you begin by selecting a qualitative design. You may decide to select a grounded theory approach that will allow you to start with some questions that address basic assumptions and expand your questions over time. You begin by developing an outline for completing the study.

Research Outli ne

You have already chosen the purpose and design of the study; now you can com- plete an outline for your study. This is basically a proposal that addresses the pur- pose of the study, how you will gain access to subjects, selection of participants (who and how many), protection of subjects’ rights, your research questions, and the collection and analysis of information. As you can see from Example 3.1, an outline is a carefully laid- out plan for the various parts of the study with a time line for completing the study. Thinking through your project is critical; researchers who do so have a better rate of completing their studies successfully and within time constraints.

Inter view Questions

The grand tour question in this study is intended to identify common experiences of mothers parenting twins. Thus your grand tour question will be “What differences have you experienced in your life since having multiple- birth children as opposed to a single- birth child?” In this sample study, you make four assumptions. That is, you expect that personal experiences, financial experiences, family experiences, and social experiences will be issues discussed by the participants. Therefore, you will ask questions on these topics during the interviews to jump- start the conver- sation and keep the momentum going, for example:

• “In what ways has being a mother of multiples affected you personally?” (personal experience)

• “In what ways has being a mother of multiples affected your finances?” (financial experience)

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Example 3.1

Mothers of Multiples Research Outline

Purpose of Study: To identify common experiences for mothers of twin children Research Design: Grounded theory design Gaining Access: Letter to Mothers of Multiples support group and phone call to president of group

• Selection Criteria of Participants: Sampling will be by convenience. Participants must:

• be mothers of twins • have a single- birth child • have twin children between the ages of three and six • be able to complete all aspects of study by (date here)

Selection and Description of Sites: Individual interviews will be conducted at each participant’s home or a public library (participant’s choice for comfort). Focus group will be held at either the university or a participant’s home, depending on majority preference. Sample Size: 15– 20 Grand Tour Research Question: “What differences have you experienced in your life since having multiple- birth children as opposed to a single- birth child?” Time Line:

• Recruitment completed by: • Interviews completed by: • Focus group completed by: • Paper completed by:

Human Subjects Protection: See informed consent form— approved by (Instructor’s name here). Data Collection: Individual interviews will be audio- taped. Participants will edit results of study (to increase credibility). Data Analysis: Content comparison for common themes Theoretical Framework: Inductive Demographics to Collect: Age, race, education, marital status, public assistance, number of children in the home, weight of twins at birth, fertility drugs used, want more children, support groups, type of twins (identical vs. fraternal)

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• “In what ways has being a mother of multiples affected your family life?” (family experience)

• “In what ways has being a mother of multiples affected your social life?” (social experience)

These initial questions are used to generate additional questions and emergent lines of conversation. This is called a semi- structured interview, in that you have research questions to start the interview process but will solicit additional information based on the responses to your initial questions, whereas a struc- tured interview is limited to the research questions the researcher brings to the interview.

Gai ni ng Access

The issue of gaining access to subjects is particularly important when one is conducting qualitative studies. When the sample size is small, having the op- portunity to interview your subjects in depth is of vital importance. This usually means spending several hours talking with each person. As a researcher, it is important for you to spend time thinking about how you may gain access to a particular population. There are several methods and you, as the researcher, have to decide which is best for you. For example:

• You may identify several places where mothers of twins congregate such as support groups or parenting classes specific to mothers with multiple- birth children (convenience sample).

• You could get contact information on women who delivered twins from your community fertility clinic where you could find subjects for your study (purposeful sample— looking at women who conceived through fertility- enhancing technology).

• You might be able to identify someone who is a mother of twins. Once you have established a relationship of trust with her, she may be willing to introduce you to other women who are also mothers of twins (snowball sample).

The bottom line is that the researcher needs to go where the action is (the research site). In this study, you locate a Mothers of Multiples support group and decide to send a letter to the president of the group to recruit volunteers (see Example 3.2).

Selection Criteria

The next step is to decide how many people to interview. Qualitative research is not as concerned with sample size as is quantitative research, but this does not mean

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that sample size is not important. As a researcher, you will need to include enough people in your sample to gain an in- depth understanding of what parenting is like for mothers of twins. In addition, while the experiences of one or two mothers are unique and valuable, in a grounded theory design you must find common experiences among several women to increase the credibility of your findings. For instance, a mother tells you that her twins have opposite personalities. Until you hear it from other mothers of twins, it is only one person’s experience. This finding is appropriate for a phenomenological design; however, in a grounded theory de- sign, your goal is to capture the shared experiences of mothers of twins. Therefore, you are hoping to recruit four to ten participants for your study.

In your study, you have chosen four specific criteria for selecting participants. First, you believe that the parenting experience may be perceived differently by mothers and fathers. Therefore, you are only interested in understanding the ex- perience of parenting from a mother’s point of view. Second, you want mothers who also have a single- birth child in the home because you want to ensure that the experiences discussed are unique to parents of twins and not just the experiences of parents in general. For instance, losing sleep and having less personal time are

Example 3.2

Mothers of Multiples Recruitment Letter

Dear Mothers of Multiples,

I am a student in the school of social work at [name of university]. I am conducting a research project to help describe the experience of mothers raising twins. I am looking for mothers to volunteer to participate in this study and who are avail- able to complete the study process by [date]. The study consists of three parts:

• a personal interview lasting no more than one hour and consisting of five initial questions, conducted in your home or at a quiet public place, such as a library (without children);

• a brief questionnaire asking demographic information (such as your age, age of children, income, race, employment, marital status, education); and

• a group meeting with the other mothers in the study to go over the findings for clarification, additions, and accuracy (about one hour, location to be determined).

I am looking for mothers who have twin children between the ages of three and six years old and have at least one single- birth child in their family. This is so I can capture any differences between the experience of raising multiple- birth children and singletons. I need prospective volunteers to contact me by [date]. Please feel free to spread the word to other mothers who might be interested.

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Qualitative Research Designs 43

inconveniences almost every parent experiences. How would someone know if having twins has caused her to have even less sleep and less personal time unless she can compare it to her experience of parenting a single- birth child? Third, you want mothers of twins who are at the same developmental age. By selecting mothers with twin children between the ages of three and six, you are increasing the likelihood that the children of your respondents will have had some similar developmental experiences. Finally, you will select only mothers who are available to complete the interviews within the established time frame. This will reduce the likelihood that participants will drop out of the study. For instance, you may con- tact a volunteer to schedule an interview but find that because she was unaware of the study’s time line, she has planned a vacation for the time during which you will be interviewing your subjects. As a final note, keep in mind that limited avail- ability and strict access requirements are always issues that can shrink a projected sample size.

Ethica l Considerations

It is important to keep in mind our discussion of ethics and the ethical considerations raised in Chapter 2. In research with people, it is important to safeguard their an- onymity and their confidentiality. While the individuals in your grounded theory study may not be anonymous, they can have the assurance that their personal information will remain confidential.

It is also important that research participants understand their rights as subjects in the study. We strongly suggest that you develop an informed consent form, have it approved by the school’s institutional review board, and have your participants sign the form. Example 3.3 can be used for grounded theory research.

Recordi ng Information

Once you have identified the research questions to be asked and found subjects to participate in your study, the next step is to decide how you will record the in- formation. Some researchers prefer to audiotape their interviews and then tran- scribe the tapes later. Others prefer to use videotapes to record their subjects’ responses. Still others record information in notes or collect information from journals and written comments. Regardless of the format that you decide to use, it is important to remember to protect the confidentiality of the participants in your research.

A na lysis

For some researchers, the analysis is the most difficult portion of the entire qual- itative research process. The researcher can end up with pages of notes, and the

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classification and categorization of so much evidence can lead to confusion, over- load, and uncertainty. Therefore, after you have finished collecting information, you will compile the information in a word processing program (see Example 3.4). This provides you with a paper copy of the subjects’ spoken words and allows you, the researcher, to begin to analyze what has been said.

You can increase the credibility of the findings by verifying the information you collect. You can clarify individual answers during the interview by repeating what you heard to ensure accuracy. In your twins study, the mothers agree to re- view the narratives collected from their interviews to ensure their accuracy. This is especially helpful when you have taken notes as opposed to using an electronic recording device that captures exact wording.

Example 3.3

Mothers of Multiples Informed Consent Form

You are being asked to participate in a research project. This research project is part of the requirements for an undergraduate social work degree at [name of univer- sity]. You will be asked to participate in an interview, and, as part of this interview, you will be asked questions about your experience being a mother of twin children. Your participation will require approximately sixty minutes of your time.

The principal investigator in this research project is [your name], who is cur- rently a student at the [name of university]. All research projects that are carried out by the investigator are governed by requirements of the university and the federal government.

There are no reasonable foreseeable risks or discomforts that can occur to you while you participate in this research. You may discontinue your participation at any time.

As part of this research, audio- taping will be utilized to record your statements. By signing this statement, you give the researcher permission to record your con- versation. The tapes will be transcribed and then destroyed. Your name will not be used, and in no way will you be identified. Any reference to you will be deleted from the transcript and replaced with a fictitious name.

Your participation is completely voluntary. You will receive no special consid- eration, reward, or compensation for participating.

[Your Name or Your Instructor’s Name]

[Telephone numbers: xxx xxx- xxxx xxx- xxx- xxxx]

Name (Please Print) Date _

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Qualitative Research Designs 45

Example 3.4

Mothers of Multiples Interviews

Participant 1: People stop us all the time. I find myself getting almost ugly with people sometimes. You just can’t walk into the store; like at Wal- Mart, people will ask, “Are they twins?” And they try to reach out and touch them. I am trying to teach them not to be too friendly with strangers, and it makes that job really hard. “I am glad it is you and not me”— I hear that a lot. It’s not just because I have twins, but because I have four kids. Some people will say, “Oh my God, are they all yours?” Others will say, “You’re not going to have any more, are you?” I can’t believe people have the nerve to say that. What gives people the right to say whatever they feel? I can’t believe it. Some people will come up because they have twins in their own family. When my husband is with me he will say, “You don’t have to be ugly.” Everyone has a comment. I have gotten to the point where I learn not to look at people so I don’t encourage contact. One lady walked by and said to her mother, “Come look at the kids!” and called her mother over, and then she said, “That’s what I am afraid is going to happen to me.” One woman said, “Oh my God, bless your heart.” And I said, “Yes, He really has.” So, I am having trouble with that; it has been a big adjustment for me.

Participant 2: The real big difference is the attention you attract in public. That has been just such a basic thing; it’s just everywhere you go, you have to stop and talk. Not everybody, but it seems like it, almost. You can’t go anywhere quickly, just because how tedious it is to get everyone in and out, and you have to stop and talk along the way. Everybody says, “Oh, you have your hands full.” That’s probably the thing I have heard the most. And then, uh, people comment about, uh, they make comments about the four boys, all the time. We get the “double trouble” that you hate, you know. You get that comment all the time. And, uh, “We don’t see how you do it.” Personal questions: “Are you going to have any more children” and “When are you gonna have a girl?” You know. People ask a lot, right off the bat, “Are they twins?” They’re identical. People often ask their names. People ask so much more with twins, I find there is really a fascination with mul- tiple births by just the general public, even though it’s more common now than it used to be with fertility drugs and stuff. Still, it is a real fascination with it, umm, I never realized that. People often stop to chit- chat, just all sorts of things; people might even stop you in a store and call somebody over to see the twins.

Participant 3: It’s a parade. You’re a spectacle. I have had several people come up and say, “Are they twins?” So, I decided to put them in the same outfit and different colors. When my husband and I are together, we can buy groceries in forty- five minutes. But it takes an hour and a half easy when the twins are with us. Because people stop and say, “Aren’t they the cutest kids” and “I always wanted twins,” and it goes on and on. When my husband goes with us, he usu- ally takes one of the twins and I take the other. You hear a lot of “I always wanted twins.” You hear a lot of family stories. But the thing that irritates me is “Better you than me,” and the one that kills me is “Do you have a favorite?” and I always Co

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46 R E S E A R C H M E T H O D S F O R S O C I A L W O R K E R S

Literature Review

In the qualitative research design, the literature review is used to shape the study based not so much on what others have found but rather on what others have not explored. Therefore, literature reviews can occur before and after information is collected. A review of the literature before a study enables the researcher to determine what general knowledge is and is not available. In the example study, you discover from a brief literature review that very few social work– related studies have been published on the issue of parenting twins (see Example 3.5). This prompted you to do a qualitative study. After you conduct the study, you go back to the literature to research the common themes that were found. In this way, you are adding to any existing knowledge.

Writi ng the Repor t

The qualitative researcher is concerned with providing a detailed and accurate description of the subject’s experience rather than an objective and dispassionate overview of the findings (as would be expected in a quantitative report). You may spend a great deal of time and energy telling a narrative that will help the reader understand the subject’s experiences. In your grounded theory study, you would try to find general themes in all the interviews and use quotes to illustrate those themes in your report. The report is organized to summarize common themes regarding each assumption as well as additional themes that were not presumed. For example, one of the recurring themes in the narrative of each subject in your grounded theory study is the issue of the public’s reactions to twins. This may lead you to formulate a new hypothesis that being a mother of twins requires one to have more interactions with others in public than does being a mother of

say, “Uh- huh, the one that is not crying.” They want to know things like “How much did they weigh?” They think they have the right to know the whole per- sonal history. “Are they identical?” “Are they boys?” And then they ask, “Were you on fertility drugs?” And I say, “And your name is?” People don’t normally ask others if they are on drugs, but I get that all the time. But people mostly ask, “Are they twins?” And being president of the Mothers of Multiples Club, when I see someone with twins, I will say, “Oh, how old are the kids?” and that will tell me right away whether or not they are twins.

Participant 4: A lot of people comment about the twins at the mall. There is more attention attracted to twins than to single babies. We do have a lot more people stopping us. I am glad for the twins club because it is not that big of a deal. They are all in the same boat.

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Qualitative Research Designs 47

single- birth children. Example 3.6 is an example of a summary of the assumptions concerning social experiences discussed by the mothers of twins.

If your research outline includes collection of demographic information in addition to the narrative data, you will want to compile this data. This informa- tion may be useful when you are writing the report. Table 3.1 shows the demo- graphics that were collected for our sample study.

C A S E S C E N A R IO

You are employed as a Case Manager in an agency that provides monetary as- sistance, help with utility bills and rent, and other services for indigent clients. Your supervisor has noticed a dramatic increase in consumers who are undo- cumented immigrants and are employed at a local factory. Your supervisor has charged you with conducting a qualitative study to try to understand more about these clients, why they have chosen to relocate to your area, and how your agency may better serve them.

Example 3.5

Mothers of Multiples Literature Review

The US Department of Health and Human Services reports that, for 1996, there were 1,000,750 live births of twins, a 150% increase over the past ten years (Martin et al., 1997). This rapid increase in multiple births is largely due to the use of fertility drugs and better medical interventions (Kiely et al., 1992). Multiple- birth children are more prone to health- related risks, such as being born premature, and associated health- related problems can create a large in- crease in medical costs for the family. This stressor and others associated with parenting fragile multiple- birth newborns are diverse and unmet by health care professionals. This may be due to a lack of awareness of what needs exist for these families.

Walton et al. (1994) report that parents of multiple- birth children feel that health caregivers are not aware of the stresses they experience and are unsure how to advise them. Some specific stressors for parents of multiple- birth children noted by Malmstrom and Biale (1990) are sleep deprivation, economic hardships, lack of time for parents to be alone, and lack of in- home help. In addition, Papiernik (1990) calculates the cost of multiple births due to extensive perinatal care and higher rate of handicaps to be ten times greater for twins than for single- birth children. The bottom line is that physicians, social workers, and other caregivers need to understand the special needs of multiple- birth families in order to pro- vide psychosocial services (Bryan, 1997).

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48 R E S E A R C H M E T H O D S F O R S O C I A L W O R K E R S

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G QU E S T IO N S

Based on the scenario just presented, please answer the following questions:

1. What qualitative inquiry method would you employ to conduct your research? Give your reasons for your choice.

2. What sampling technique would you utilize? 3. What would be your sample size? 4. Based on the type of inquiry method you use, how would you report

your findings?

K E Y P O I N T S

• The four most common qualitative research designs are ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, and case study.

Example 3.6

Mothers of Multiples Report

Social experiences were a predominant theme. All four women reported a lack of privacy in public due to stranger curiosity. The comments and questions most encountered were “Are they twins?” “You’re not having more are you?” and “I’m glad it’s you and not me.” One mother summed up her frustration concerning public curiosity with this statement: “They want to know things like how much did they weigh. They think they have the right to know the whole personal history.”

Another common experience for all four mothers was the additional time it takes in public when they have their twins with them. “You can’t go anywhere quickly, just because how tedious it is to get everyone in and out, and you have to stop and talk along the way.” “We do have a lot more people stopping us.” “People stop us all the time.” “When my husband and I are together, we can buy groceries in forty- five minutes. But it takes an hour and a half easy when the twins are with us.”

The literature reports that families with multiple- birth children suffer eco- nomic hardships, medical problems, and multiple stressors. What the literature fails to identify are the specific stressors and hardships facing these families. In this study, specific information has been captured to help ferret out the unique social struggles experienced by these four women.

One recommendation for practice is to educate families about the social im- pact of twins in public. With the overexposure of quintuplets and sextuplets in the media, the mothers of twins in this study felt their privacy was invaded in public but felt neglected in supportive donations, such as those seen with families of quintuplets.

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Table 3.1. Mothers of Multiples Demographics

Mother #1 Mother #2 Mother #3 Mother #4

Age 33 39 27 36

Race White White White White

Education 3 years college Bachelor’s degree

High school diploma

Master’s degree

Marital Status Married Married Married Married

Public Assistance

None None WIC None

Employment Full time None Part time (at home)

None

Family Income $62,000 $120,000 $36,500 $75,000

Number of Children in the Home

3 4 4 4

Age/ Sex of Children

34 mo male 34 mo male 19 mo male

6 yr female 5 yr male 34 mo male 34 mo male

8 yr female 5 yr male 32 mo male 32 mo male

5yr/ male 3 yr male 14 mo male 14 mo male

Weight of Twins at Birth

4 lbs, 0 oz 4 lbs, 10 oz

7 lbs, 6 oz 8 lbs, 1 oz

6 lbs, 13 oz 6 lbs, 4 oz

5 lbs, ½ oz 5 lbs, 14½ oz

Mother’s Age when Twins Were Born

29 36 25 35

Fertility Drugs Used when Twins Were Conceived

Yes No No No

Want More Children

No No No Maybe

Support Groups Used

AMOM AMOM AMOM Church

AMOM Church PTA

Type of Twins Identical Identical Identical Identical

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50 R E S E A R C H M E T H O D S F O R S O C I A L W O R K E R S

• Ethnographic research designs are centered on cultural behavior. This research design seeks to record the cultural aspects of a group.

• Grounded theory is a type of research design that utilizes a recursive form of question and analysis. The researcher begins with a set of questions that lead to further questions. From the individual information collected, common themes are identified.

• Phenomenological research designs seek to understand the lived experience of those who are being studied.

• A case study is a detailed analysis of a single or limited number of people or events. A case study can be illustrative, exploratory, a critical instance, program effects, prospective, cumulative, or narrative.

P R AC T I C E E X A M

Mu ltiple Choice

1. Qualitative research techniques are used a. when we want to draw correlations between variables. b. when we know a great deal about a subject and there is literature to

support our findings. c. when we know very little about a subject or phenomenon. d. when we are sure about our outcomes and simply want to verify our

hypothesis. 2. When conducting qualitative studies, the ability to interview a subject

in depth a. is of vital importance. b. is of little or no importance. c. should not be done because you might frighten your subject. d. none of the above.

3. Sample size, in qualitative research, is a. of more importance than in quantitative research. b. is not considered at all. c. is less important than quantitative research. d. none of the above.

True or Fa lse

4. Ethnographic research designs are centered on cultural behavior. 5. The four most common qualitative research designs are ethnography,

grounded theory,phenomenology, and single- subject design.

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Qualitative Research Designs 51

6. Phenomenological research designs seek to understand the lived experience of those who arebeing studied.

7. In qualitative research, the literature review is conducted after the research is completed.

8. In research with people, it is important to safeguard their anonymity and their confidentiality.

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