Research Paper

Alternative Policy to Replace Article of Confederation

Marritta

29 APR 2019

PADM 550 PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS

Dr. Eva Johnson

Abstract

With regard to may portion analysis we can definitely considered that the constitution is relevant with Biblical conceptions relating to social and political ideologies. The ratification of the Article of Confederations in 1781 did not only solve contentious issues, but also created additional challenges in constitutional amendments, these challenges can be solved by conducting valuation through the comparison of the difficulty of such modifications across authorities. It is also noted that there must be the existence of properly laid down rules for constitutional amendment, the rules are largely underdeveloped in the proportional scholarship. This is has given the next generation a challenge to not only focus on the factors that influence the difficulty of constitutional amendment but to deepen focus on developing fresh and innovative answers to the impending problem that have been identified in this work,

Defining the Problem

Overview

The article of Confederation was insufficient in definite areas in regard to governance. Some of the challenges associated it were lack of means to enforce laws and even the ability to settle any disputes regarding national laws since it did not give the congress and the national government enough powers, it did not create the position of the chief executive, so the government failed to enforce the laws passed among other challenges (Birkland, 2015) The realization of the inefficiency of the Article of federation came in 1786, when Daniel Shays in Massachusetts led a rebellion. As a result, need for discussions of plans for a better system of government were initiated (Maggs, 2017). Thus, The Articles of Confederation were reviewed under George Washington governance and a new-fangled system of government was generated.

Root Causes

According to the Biblical models, the broad-spectrum philosophies of Christianity as everlasting and incontrovertible as the existence and attributes of God is the general principles in which the founding fathers managed to achieve liberation (Beliles, & Anderson , 2005). There has never been reference in relation to democracies and republics. The creation of the constitutions cannot be said to be based on Biblical principles, however, it is clearly seen and it would not be wrong to say that the Constitution was stimulated by Biblical values. The United States of America operated under two constitutions; these are the Article of Confederation which was the first constitution in the United States created in November 15, 1777 and then ratified in March 1, 1781, and the constitution which was first drafted in May 25, 1787 (Kosiewicz, et al, 2016). The Article IV (FOUR) of the United States constitution highlights the relationship between the various states, and the correlation amongst the different states, it also outlines the association between every state and the central government. This chapter has also empowered the congress to acknowledge new states and oversee the territories of other national domains.

Competing Interpretations

With regard to political practicability, on assessing the challenges faced by the Article of Federations, it has shown that it can produce unequal outcomes among state across committees, and for individuals living in these different states, this is often associated with economic inequalities due to different levels of economic growth across states (Dougherty, K. 2006 ). The next problem is the inefficiency through policy replication as each state and local government independently formulate finances and implement public policy, this results into an added cost. Last but not least, federalism at some given point can cloud peoples understanding of who is responsible for public policy outcomes, this is because many units of government overlap, this means that at times the policy preferences at different levels collide, for example goals that are diametrically opposed, this can create finger-pointing across different levels and units of government leaving citizens confused or even upset with the overall government. Lastly, each state had to vote in the Assembly despite its populace (Dougherty, K. 2006). This means that, the residents of small states may have had more political command as equated to citizens of large states.

Impacts

The proposition for the amendment of the constitution was about $900 million which when equated as a percentage to GDP comes to about 0.34% of the budget (Kosiewicz, et al, 2016). However, a balanced budget revision to the US constitution would be an infrequent and frugally hazardous approach to address the state’s extensive period fiscal problem. It would loom substantial economic damage, it would also raise a multitude of difficulties for the operation of Social Security as well as other vibrant national programs (Birkland, 2015). The planning of a balanced budget annually will pose serious economic challenges, despite the position of the economy, an adjustments as such would raise serious tipping weak economies into recession and making it extensive and cavernous leading to a pronounced job loses, such adjustments will then force the policy architects to condense central programs to increase taxes or even both once the economy is frail or already in depression, the precise contrary of what good strategist would recommend (McMahon & Johnson, 2018). 

Policy Alternatives

Legislation Option 1: Change the terms of the article of confederation to ensure that it only work in states and not the national government.

The article of confederation in general reduces the powers of the presidency and the congress in matters taxation and commerce, military operations and inter-state relationship (Freedman, 1992). Implementing and alternative policy that will ensure that article of confederation work under the states alone will ensure that states are allowed to conduct their affairs without the interference of the federal government. Improving inter-state relationship is very important as it will not only increase unity of purpose among states but will also increase prosperity in individual states.

Legislation Option 2: Throw out the article of confederation as a whole and rely on the constitution only as it is very expensive to implement it.

Implementing a policy that will throw out the operation of article of confederations is the most important thing today for the United States (Freedman, 1992). It is true that the federal government spend a lot of money to implement the requirements of the article of the confederation of which most of them are duplicated in the federal constitution and the in the constitutions of the states. States and federal governments will continue to spend more tax payers money to fund duplicated requirements that are in the constitution and in the article of confederation (Kosiewicz, et al, 2016). It is because of this that implementing a policy that will throw out the article of confederation will be the best policy to reduce both state and federal spending in United State.

May

Legislation Option 1

Biblical guidelines

The bible in very clear from the beginning that leaders should be given the autonomy that they deserve so that they can serve effectively. All leaders in the bible had full control of the activities that were carried in their kingdoms (Griffin, 1995). Leaders in this regard need to be given the right to perform there functions without interference. It is because of this that the article of confederation should be changed to allow the states and the federal governments to work and manage their affairs (Kosiewicz, et al, 2016). The constitution in its entirety is based on the principles from the bible and should be respected.

Constitutional guidelines.

There is no doubt that the Articles of Confederation was the first federal document that gave United States its shape when it gained its independence. However, with time, the Americans saw it better to change some parts of the document as administrative social needs changed (Freedman, 1992). United states today continue to work under two legal documents that include the constitution and the article of confederation. Although Article IV of the US Constitution provides the way federal government and state governments, it is clear that having these two important documents operating at the same time is a big contradiction. There is enough evidence that indicates that the federal government through the power it has from the article of confederation to limit the dealing between individual states in the country (Griffin, 1995).

Legislation Option 2

Biblical guidelines

Independent is very important when it comes to leadership. The bible and Christians believe that leaders they have should be given the independence they deserve to manage their affairs. From the biblical context, leaders were given the powers to act in order to protect the interests of the subjects (Griffin, 1995). The article of confederation play very important role in shaping the working of the two levels of governments but is also an impediment in the working rather powers that are enjoyed by leaders. Bible advocates for leadership independent and this is what the article of confederation limits.

Constitutional guidelines

It is important to have a government that respect the authority that it has been given by the people. There is no doubt that any government and institutions that are given much powers are likely to violate their powers if left unchecked (Griffin, 1995). Under the operation of the article of confederation, the powers of the presidency were reduced drastically. Although this may have been one way of promoting checks and balance, it does not go well when a decision that is immediate has to been taken. It is the responsibility of the executive to protect the nation from external and internal security threats. Issues to do with taxation and commerce in general are very important to a nation. However, under the working of the article of confederation congress does not have rather have limited powers in matters taxation and commerce (Kosiewicz, et al, 2016). Although they were able to make Lawson such issues, they were not able to enforce them and the powers on taxation and commerce rested with state governments. The federal government had to depend on states for financial reimbursements which some states could not meet their expected reimbursement to the government.

Can

Legislation Option 1

Political feasibility

Politically, the article of confederation has far reaching political implications both to the federal government and state governments in United State. One of the major implication is that all states are given the same rights when it comes to congress voting (Henry, 2017). In this way, states that have high population are not equally represented as it is with those with low population (Jensen, 2013). Secondly, the article of confederation limit the political dealing with other states and the federal government which limit their economic growth of individual states.

Financial feasibility

Although amending the constitution to change the article of confederation cause from operation will be expensive, it will be a one cost affair that will save the country a lot in the future (Henry, 2017). Generally, it takes around $5 million given the high population and the process involved. Although this may sound expensive, it is the best thing to be done currently to save America from incurring costs that are related to the duplicated roles.

Practical feasibility

Practically, changing the clause in a constitution is something that can be done by both congress and senate. This will be done through senate and congress committee which can discuss the changes and form a bill that will be discussed in parliament (Abbott, 2016). There were several issues that caused challenges during the drafting the new system of the government of the Unites States. One of the main issues was the lack of a federal court to resolve disagreement between states, the incompetence of the congress to apply federal laws in the states and the incapacity to administer truces, this even created challenge in making modifications since concord rule in Article XIII required consent of all states so as to make any alterations to the article (Jensen, 2013). The other concern was the representation of the populace of a state in Congress, minus opposing minority-states to their grander members, this was solved by conveying congressional regions by numeral while permitting each state just 2 members in the senate, in this manner, every state would have equivalent representation in Congress while on the other hand people would have balanced representation in the house (Dougherty, K. 2006).

Legislation Option 2

Political feasibility

There are several implications that originate from the operation of the article of confederation (Beard, 2017). One of the major political implication of the article is that it limits the powers of the presidency and congress as institutions that are very critical in the affairs of the countries. Limiting the powers of the president and the parliament has far reaching implications to the economy and political stability of the nation.

Financial feasibility.

Amending the constitution to change the article of confederation cause from operation will be expensive, it will be a one cost affair that will save the country a lot in the future (Abbott, 2016). It will take United States around $21 million to conduct a referendum that is the only constitutional and political process that can change the constitution to eliminate article of confederation.

Practical feasibility

In practical sense, it will be a long process to change the constitution. This will require the country to suggest the need to change the constitution. The other most important issue disquiet was the concern with regards to the preservation of each state’s independence, liberty as well as independence as was delivered under the Article of Confederation (Beard, 2017). This was resolved by clarification from Madison’s press, stating that the constitution was ratified by the people of each state independently and respectively, and not the US populace or states jointly as such it was not a national constitution , but only federal, to mean that each state would remain unrestricted, self-governing and independent under its people who by virtue have gave their superior right to federal against state government, while at the same time retaining the final power within themselves (Feinberg, B. 2002).  The idea will them be discussed in congress and senate to form the bill which will then be subjected to a vote in a political process. People will have to be appointed to discuss the idea before it is subjected to the public to voting in a national referendum before it is passed.

Should

Legislation Option 1

Changing the constitution to and the article of confederation is an option that can be adapted to streamline the working of the two levels of governments in United States (Beard, 2017). Changing the constitution to amend some parts of the article of confederation may look to be the easiest way to go about issues that emanate from the powers of the section of the constitution. However, the effects of the section of the constitution will still be seen rather witnessed even if the section is amended to change its operations. However, something that will be very true is that the leaders will be allowed to be independent to a certain extent (Birkland, 2015). It is very clear that the article of confederation changed the government structure in United States. Changing rather amending part of the article will of cause change the shape of the government again. The law has its basis in the bible and there is no way changes will not affect the functioning of the government. However, the processes that will be involved in the entire exercise will be simple and straight forward.

Legislation Option 2

Deleting the entire article of confederation sounds to be the best option in this case. However, it is equally important that United States consider the implication it will have on its history (Abbott, 2016). Article of confederation was the first law that United States used to get the independence from Britain. All said than done, deleting the article of confederation is the best option as politicians will support the process since it will give them more powers in matters commerce and taxation (Birkland, 2015). It is the best policy option as it will allow the executive and the legislature to perform their functions without interference from other quarters.

Summary

The article of confederation will forever be the cornerstone of the American law since it was the first legal document that was composed by the Americans. However, things change and as such, the content of the article may have changed and much need to be changed to ensure that it fits the legal requirements of the current century. It is because of this that United States has to change the constitution by deleting the article of confederation to ensure that government operations are done in the right way.

References

Abbott, G. (2016). The Myths and Realities of Article V . Tex. Rev. L. & Pol. , 21, 1.

Beard, C. (2017). An economic interpretation of the Constitution of the United States. Routledge .

Beliles, M. & Anderson, D. (2005). Contending for the Constitution: recalling the Christian influence on the writing of the Constitution and the biblical basis of American law and liberty. Charlottesville, Virginia: Providence Foundation.

Birkland, T. A. (2015). An introduction to the policy process: Theories, concepts, and models of public policy making. Routledge.

Dougherty, K. (2006). Collective action under the Articles of Confederation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fea, J. (2011). Was America founded as a Christian nation? : a historical introduction. Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press.

Feinberg, B. (2002). The Articles of Confederation : the first constitution of the United States. Brookfield, Conn: Twenty-First Century Books.

Freedman, E. M. (1992). Why Constitutional Lawyers and Historians Should Take a Fresh Look at the Emergence of the Constitution from the Confederation Period: The Case of the Drafting of the Articles of Confederation. Tenn. L. Rev., 60, 783.

Griffin, S. M. (1995). Problem of Constitutional Change. Tul. L. Rev., 70, 2121.

Henry, N. (2017). Public administration and public affairs. Routledge.

Jensen, M. (1934). The articles of confederation (Vol. 1). University of Wisconsin--Madison.

Kosiewicz, H., Ngo, F., & Fong, K. (2016). Alternative models to deliver developmental math: Issues of use and student access. Community College Review, 44(3), 205-231.

Maggs, G. E. (2017). A Concise Guide to the Articles of Confederation as a Source for Determining the Original Meaning of the Constitution. Geo. Wash. L. Rev., 85, 397.

McMahon, K., & Johnson, A. (2018). Alternative Accountability Models: A Comparative Analysis of Site Visits in Two Urban School Districts. Journal of School Leadership, 28(5), 618-641.

The United States Constitution September 17, 1787; retrieved from, http://www.constitution.org/usconsti.htm

���� Hello, Marritta, and thank you for reaching out to the Online Writing Center (OWC)! It is a pleasure to aid you in your writing skill development journey.

Disclaimer: Please note that in reviewing your document I cannot edit your paper for you, nor can I point out every error made. Remember that the OWC is not an editing service. Our comments and suggestions are not exhaustive. Our service is designed to help you recognize and correct your writing so that you can become a better writer.  Except where otherwise noted, formatting suggestions follow the latest (6th) edition of Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.  If in doubt about whether to use the 6th edition, please consult your professor.

If you see the following statement, it means that I will no longer explicitly comment on similar errors found throughout the remaining portion of the document: “Apply throughout”. Upon seeing those highlighted words, you will need to scan the remainder of your paper to find and correct any similar errors. Please regard my comments as examples which you can use during your revising and editing process. Please refer to the APA formatting requirements before submitting your document for a final grade. The Liberty University website has an APA Format Quick Guide for easy reference. I encourage you to access � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/index.cfm?PID=12268" \t "_blank" �the writing aids� often.

If you have any questions that I did not address within this paper, please feel free to � HYPERLINK "mailto:onlinewriting@liberty.edu?subject=Quick%20Question" \t "_blank" �email the OWC�.  If you need further assistance, feel free to request a Skype appointment via the  � HYPERLINK "https://sharepoint.liberty.edu/sites/MUWP/OTSsite/_layouts/FormServer.aspx?XsnLocation=https://sharepoint.liberty.edu/sites/MUWP/InfoPath_Form_Templates/OWC-Request_Tutoring.xsn&SaveLocation=https%3A%2F%2Fsharepoint%2Eliberty%2Eedu%2Fsites%2FMUWP%2FOTSsite%2FRequest%20Tutoring%20Assistance&ClientInstalled=false&Source=https%3A%2F%2Fsharepoint%2Eliberty%2Eedu%2Fsites%2FMUWP%2FOTSsite%2FRequest%2520Tutoring%2520Assistance%2FForms%2FMyItems%2Easpx&DefaultItemOpen=1&_ga=2.102969732.529748525.1533327736-1343783036.1533327736" \t "_blank" �Skype request form� or you can contact � HYPERLINK "https://na01.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Flibertyu.webex.com%2Fsc3300%2Fsupportcenter%2Fwebacd.do%3Fsiteurl%3Dlibertyu%26WQID%3D7136e4602c7e3e8f6bd498bfdc56f5aa%26siteurl%3Dlibertyu%26apiname%3Dwebacd%26servicename%3DSC%26needFilter%3Dfalse%26rnd%3D8750696636%26isurlact%3Dtrue%26entactname%3D%252Fwebacd.do%26entappname%3Durl3300%26renewticket%3D0&data=02%7C01%7Cjnecessary4%40liberty.edu%7Cc0cf2151d538486a072a08d691cda370%7Cbaf8218eb3024465a9934a39c97251b2%7C0%7C0%7C636856709723089228&sdata=6BrYjF%2Bmjr9SMTOWwdK8nc0hdv6isJxguTxk3lJJZeg%3D&reserved=0" \t "_blank" \o "Original URL: https://libertyu.webex.com/sc3300/supportcenter/webacd.do?siteurl=libertyu&WQID=7136e4602c7e3e8f6bd498bfdc56f5aa&siteurl=libertyu&apiname=webacd&servicename=SC&needFilter=false&rnd=8750696636&isurlact=true&entactname=%2Fwebacd.do&entappname=url33" �the live chat�.. Also, please be sure to fill out the Student Satisfaction Survey located at the bottom of your completed request. Thank you again for working with me!

Jessica

�I liked your paper! The structure due to the level headings gives a clear delineation as to what is being discussed at the time. The argument made in each section seems to fit the criteria of the assignment. There are primary, peer-reviewed sources cited within your work, which adds to the credibility of your argument. Overall, this draft is a solid foundation toward your final submission. Great job!

�Improper title page. The corresponding template shows title case format (both upper and lowercase letters) instead of all caps.

Example:

EDUC 746 Conflict Resolutions

See the assignment template for additional aid.

�����First person is allowed under certain circumstances in formal papers but should be avoided in general unless your instructor deems the use appropriate. Check with your instructor to see what their preference is. Sometimes instructors allow first person in certain portions of the paper which require personal reflection but not other sections. Their preference may vary depending upon the type of paper as well. If the instructor says that first person is not allowed, consider rewording the paper to reflect the third person. Apply throughout if applicable. See the � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sample_Paper_-_APA_-_CMO_11072018.pdf" �APA Sample Paper� for additional aid.

���Subject-verb agreement. Verbs must agree in number with the subject regardless of intervening phrases. Change the verb in the highlighted area to agree with the number of subject(s) in the highlighted area. Apply throughout.

Example:

Incorrect - “Most passwords must consist of eight letters and numbers as well as one symbol, a combination of which increase security.”

Correct - “Most passwords must consist of eight letters and numbers as well as one symbol a combination, of which increases security.”

See Section 3.19 of the APA manual.

�������Capitalization error. There are several provisions for capitalization within the APA manual (Sections 4.14 – 4.20). Capitalize words that begin a sentence, major words in titles and headings, proper nouns and trade names, nouns followed by numerals or letters, titles of tests, names of conditions or groups in an experiment, and names of factors/variables/effects.

In addition, pronouns and nouns associated with God are capitalized as a show of respect.

Review these sections on capitalization and consider if any of these circumstances apply to “biblical” in this sentence. If so, consider capitalizing the word. There are other issues of capitalization in this paper: both terms needing to be made uppercase and terms that should be made lowercase. Apply throughout.

Examples:

“Human Resources has a Confidentiality Policy that all employees must sign.”

“Human Resources has a policy on confidentiality that all employees must sign.”

“Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone is a fantasy novel..”

“God’s word is good and just.”

“This scripture allieviates my anxiety.”�Incorrect – “our lord and savior Jesus Christ”

Correct – “our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ”

Refer to sections 4.14 – 4.20 of the APA manual or see the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Capitalization.pdf" �capitalization� for additional support.�

���“It” is an overused pronoun. Avoid using "it" as the subject of a sentence unless it is clear as to what specific subject "it" is referring. Consider rewording to clarify to the reader. Apply throughout.

Example:

Incorrect - "It suggested using a qualitative research design."

Correct - "The article suggested using a qualitative research design."

See Section 3.09 of the APA manual.

���An independent clause (or main clause) is a clause that can stand by itself as a simple sentence. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate and makes sense by itself.� Two independent clauses can be separated using a semicolon when no coordinating conjunction is present. Apply throughout.

Example:

Incorrect – “The truck is coming down the highway, it will stop in Louisville.”

Correct – “The truck is coming down the highway; it will stop in Louisville.”

See Section 4.04 of the APA manual or you may refer to the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Semicolons.pdf" �semicolons�.

��“This” is a pronoun which is overused. The reader must be able to identify to what noun “this” is referring. Avoid using “this” to begin a sentence. If the word is used, make sure to place a noun following “this”. Apply throughout.

Example:

Incorrect - “This is really difficult.”

Correct - “This puzzle is really difficult.”

See Section 3.09 of the APA manual.

����Improper verb tense. “Given” is the past participle form of the infinitive verb “to give.” “Has given” is the present perfect tense and is formed by using has/have with the past participle of the verb. The present perfect tense describes an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past OR that began in the past and continues in the present. The present progressive is formed by combining the verb “to be” with the present participle. (The present participle is merely the “-ing” form of a verb.) Pesent progressive can be used to describe what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Consider which tense fits best in this sentence. Reading the sentence aloud may also help to determine if there is an error. When reading the sentence, if the flow is interrupted, there may be an error.

Examples:

He has jumped over the puddle. (present perfect)

He is jumping over the puddle. (present progressive)

See Section 3.18 of the APA manual and refer to the OWC’s website for a resource on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Verb_Tenses.pdf" �verb tenses� for additional aid.

�Punctuation (periods, question marks, etc.) is used to demonstrate the completion of a sentence. Consider if the current sentence is finished or continuing.

Example: I walked to the park.

See section 4.02 of the APA manual.

���Prepositions (with, by, for, in, on, etc.) function within phrases to modify main verbs, nouns, or adjective. They also express spatial and temporal relationships between parts of a sentence. Consider if a preposition could be used in the highlighted area. Apply throughout.

Example:

Incorrect – “I went the store Henry.”

Correct — “I went to the store with Henry.”

See Section 3.09 of the APA manual and also refer to the OWC’s presentation on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Prepositions.pdf" �prepositions�.

����A run-on sentence is a sentence that joins two (or more) independent clauses without punctuation or the appropriate conjunction. Apply throughout.

Fixing a run-on sentence can be accomplished in one of five different ways:

* Separate the clauses into separate sentences. 

* Replace the comma or conjunction with a semi-colon. 

* Replace the comma or coordinating conjunction with a subordinating conjunction--after, although, before, unless, as, because, even though, if, since, until, when, while. 

* Replace the comma or coordinating conjunction with a semi-colon and transitional word--however, moreover, on the other hand, nevertheless, instead, also, therefore, consequently, otherwise, as a result.

For severe run-on sentences, combine the previous methods.

For example:

* Incorrect: Rachel is very smart, and she began reading when she was three years old, but she always had trouble with math, and her social skills were lacking. 

* Incorrect:  Rachel is very smart and she began reading when she was three years old but she always had trouble with math and her social skills were lacking.

* Correct: Rachel is very smart. She began reading when she was three years old.  She always had trouble with math.  Her social skills were lacking.

* Correct:  Rachel is very smart, and she began reading when she was three years old.  She always had trouble with math, and her social skills were lacking.

* Correct: Rachel is very smart; she began reading when she was three years old.  She always had trouble with math; her social skills were lacking.

* Correct: Although Rachel is very smart, she always had trouble with math.  Since she began reading when she was three years old, her social skills were lacking.  

* Correct: Rachel is very smart; as a result, she began reading when she was three years old.  She always had trouble with math; moreover, her social skills were lacking.

* Correct:  Because Rachel is very smart, she began reading when she was three years old; however, she always had trouble with math, and her social skills were lacking.

See 3.22, 3.23, and 4.03 of the APA manual. You can also refer to the OWC’s presentations on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Conjuctions.pdf" �conjunctions� and � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Proper_Comma_Use.pdf" �proper comma usage�.

�Articles can be definite (the) or indefinite (a, an). Articles are placed in front of nouns and function similar to adjectives. “The” is used before both singular and plural specific nouns that indicate a particular thing or member of a group and may be used to refer to one or many of these things Example: “The teacher” indicares on particular teacher. “A teacher” could refer to any teacher. “The” may also be used to refer to one or many of these things Example: “The dog was seen running after the cats.” “The” is used when the noun cannot be counted. “The coffee was too sweet.” The use of “a” and “an” indicates the noun modified is indefinite (no particular member of a group). They are used when the noun modified is singular and general. “A” and “an” are used owhen the noun can be counted (Example – “a vehicle,” “an apple”). Place the word “a” in front of any noun referring to one thing within a type but not constrained to one token thing. In other words, use “a” for any one dog but not necessarily that dog (example – “A cat jumped onto my lap.”). In general, “a” precedes singular nouns that begin with a consonant (“a student”). “An” precedes singular nouns that begin with a vowel (“an addres”). Consider if an article may be used before “need.”

See the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Articles.pdf" ��articles� for additional support.

��Writing style. In formal papers, it tends to be best to write as clearly and concisely as possible. Colloquial expressions, slang, jargon, clumsy prose, and expressions, which may not be universally understood, should be avoided unless necessary for a specific point. Otherwise, the paper takes on an informal tone. In general, you want to be to the point and say only what needs to be said. See Sections 3.05-3.11 of the APA manual for additional aid with writing style.

�In parenthetical citations, when there are two authors listed for a source, use an ampersand to separate the two author’s last names (avoid using a comma to separate the two).

Example: (Smith & Thomas, 2018)

�See sections 6.29 and 6.12 of the APA manual or you may refer to the OWC’s � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sample_Paper_-_APA_-_CMO_11072018.pdf" �APA Sample Paper� and the � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/academics/casas/academicsuccess/index.cfm?PID=11960" �APA Format Quick Guide� for additional formatting explanations.

��Use “which” (preceded by a comma) to introduce a non-restrictive (non-essential) clause.  For example, “The product claiming ‘all natural ingredients,’ which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, is on sale.” Apply throughout. See section 3.22 of the APA manual.

�For works with 3 to 5 authors, list all authors’ last names in the first citation: e.g. (Smith, Jones, & Brown, 2010).  In subsequent citations, list the first author’s name and “et al.”: e.g. (Smith et al., 2010).  Note that al. is an abbreviation for alli, which is why it has a period and et does not (Avoid using a comma between the first author’s last name and the prhase “et al.”). Apply throughout. See section 6.12 of the APA manual or you may refer to the OWC’s � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sample_Paper_-_APA_-_CMO_11072018.pdf" �APA Sample Paper� and the � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/academics/casas/academicsuccess/index.cfm?PID=11960" �APA Format Quick Guide� for additional formatting explanations.

�I am unsure as to what purpose this serves. It does not seem to be an acronym as it is not included anywhere else in the paper. Consider if this is needed information. If it is, provide clarification so that the reader may better understand. See section 3.08-9 of the APA manual.

�This paragraph is in full-alignment. APA guidelines state that papers should be left-aligned. Consider changing the current alignment to left-alignment to address the issue. See section 8.03 of the APA manual.

�When a noun (person, place, or thing) is singular, it means there is only one of the item. If it is plural, it means there is more than one of the noun.� In general, the plural of a word is formed by adding an “s” to the end of the word (there are exceptions). Consider if one “state” is being discussed here or more than one. Apply throughout.

Example: “dog” becomes “dogs”

See the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Forming_Plurals.pdf" �plurals� for additional assistance.

�When using parenthetical citations, the author’s last name and year of publication are placed in parentheses.

Example: (Smith, 2018); (Smith & Thomas, 2018)

See sections 6.29 and 6.11-2 of the APA manual.

���Apostrophes may be used to indicate possession of noun (person, place, or thing). In general, singular possession is demonstrated through the use of ‘s while plural possession is shown through s’ (there are exceptions). The plural form of a term means there is more than one noun. Consider if an apostrophe or plural is needed here.

Example:

Apostrophe Singular – “The baby’s bottle is on the table.” (The bottle belongs to the baby.)

Apostrophe Plural – “The babies’ bottles are on the table.” (The bottles belong to the babies.)

Singular – “I have a dog.”

Plural – “I have two dogs.”

(There is more than one dog.)

See section 4.08 of the APA manual or you may refer to the OWC’s resources on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/ApostrophesPPT.pdf" �apostrophes� and � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Forming_Plurals.pdf" �plurals� for additional aid.

�A comma splice is similar to a run-on sentence in that it is a sentence that joins two (or more) independent clauses, but it uses a comma to join two clauses that have no appropriate conjunction.

Fixing a comma splice can be accomplished in one of five different ways:

* Separate the clauses into two sentences.

* Replace the comma with a semi-colon.

* Insert a coordinating conjunction--and, but, for, yet, nor, so.

* Replace the comma with a subordinating conjunction--after, although, before, unless, as, because, even though, if, since, until, when, while.

* Replace the comma with a semi-colon and transitional word--however, moreover, on the other hand, nevertheless, instead, also, therefore, consequently, otherwise, as a result.

For example:

* Incorrect: Rachel is very smart, she began reading when she was three years old.

* Correct: Rachel is very smart. She began reading when she was three years old.

* Correct: Rachel is very smart; she began reading when she was three years old.

* Correct: Rachel is very smart, and she began reading when she was three years old.

* Correct: Because Rachel is very smart, she began reading when she was three years old.

* Correct: Rachel is very smart; as a result, she began reading when she was three years old.

See the OWC’s resources on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Proper_Comma_Use.pdf" �proper comma usage� and � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sentence_Construction.pdf" ��sentence construction� for additional support.

��When using acronyms, the entire term(s) should be spelled-out entirely first in a sentence then the acronym placed in parentheses immediately beside the spelled-out term(s). After the first time the term(s) are spelled out, the acronym may be used from that point forward in the paper.

Example: American Psychological Association (APA)

See section 4.02 of the APA manual.

��In APA style, “United States” should always be spelled out when it is used as a noun or location; however, the terms can be abbreviated when used as an adjective. When it is used as an adjective, periods should be placed after each abbreviated term. Apply throughout.

Examples:

“The United States is made up of fifty states.”

“The U.S. Department of Homeland Security helps protect the United States.”

See section 4.22 of the APA manual.

�Misspelled word. Consider changing the spelling to reflect the correct term.

Example: “is” should be “his”

See the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Spell-check_Unreliability.pdf" ��spelling-check unreliability� for additional aid.

�Level 2 headings should be left-aligned, flush agains the left margin and in bold, titlecase font. Apply throughout.

Example:

Environmental Regulations

Drop down one double-space then begin the section. See section 3.03 of the APA manual or you may refer to the OWC’s � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sample_Paper_-_APA_-_CMO_11072018.pdf" �APA Sample Paper� and the � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/academics/casas/academicsuccess/index.cfm?PID=11960" �APA Format Quick Guide� for additional formatting explanations.

���In general, paragraphs are comprised of three to five sentences that follow one cohesive thought. There are only two sentences in this paragraph. Consider adding more content to the current paragraph or combining the information with another paragraph in which the information fits. Apply throughout. See the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Paragraph_Construction.pdf" �paragraph construction� for additional aid.

���Some words are considered closed compound words (example – flowerpot). A closed compound word is two terms that have been combined into one singular word. See section 4.13 of the APA manual.

�Level 3 headings should be indented, boldface, sentence case with a period, then two spaces, and begin your content on the same line. Apply throughout.

Example:

Ethical principles. There are many ethical preinciples involved in…

See section 3.03 of the APA manual or you may refer to the OWC’s � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sample_Paper_-_APA_-_CMO_11072018.pdf" �APA Sample Paper� and the � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/academics/casas/academicsuccess/index.cfm?PID=11960" �APA Format Quick Guide� for additional formatting explanations.

�Misspelled word. Consider changing the spelling to reflect the correct term.

Example: “is” should be “his”

See the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Spell-check_Unreliability.pdf" ��spelling-check unreliability� for additional aid.

�“There” indicates place or position. “Their” is possessive for “they” and indicates something belonging to “them.” “They’re” is the contraction for “they are.” Apply throughout. Consider which term is needed in this sentence. See the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Commonly%20Misused%20Words.pdf" ��commonly misused words� for additional aid.

��Are you referring to a specific article here or to the entire document in general? Based upon that, you may or may not need to change this to the plural form. The plural of a term means there is more than one of the noun (person, place, or thing). If you are referring to a singular article, consider giving clarification as to which article is being discussed. Apply throughout. See section 3.09 of the APA manual or the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Forming_Plurals.pdf" �plurals� for additional support.

��������Fragment. This sentence is a fragment. There is either not a subject or verb present in the sentence or there is not a complete idea being conveyed. Consider adding a subject or verb to the sentence, combining it with another sentence, or rewording the sentence to address the issue.

Example:

Incorrect – My house at the end of the road.

Correct – My house is at the end of the road.

Here is a link on the OWC website to a useful resource on � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sentence%20Fragments.pdf" �fragments�.

�“Than” is preposition used for comparison. “My sister, Ann, is much younger than I am.” “I would rather go home than stay here.” Consider if “than” may fit in this sentence. Apply throughout. See section 3.09 of the APA manual.

�Wrong-word errors can involve mixing up words that sound alike, using a word with the wrong shade of meaning, or using a word with a completely wrong meaning. Many wrong-word errors are due to the improper use of homonyms - words that are pronounced alike but spelled differently, such as their and there. For example, “Paradise Lost contains many illusions to classical mythology.” Illusions means "false ideas or appearances," and allusions means "references." Instead use, “Paradise Lost contains many allusions to classical mythology.” OR “Working at a computer all day often means being sedate for long periods of time.” Sedate means "composed, dignified," and sedentary means "requiring much sitting." Instead use, “Working at a computer all day often means being sedentary for long periods of time.” Apply throughout. See section 3.09 of the APA manual.

�Improper verb tense. When “to” is used in front of a verb, the infinitive is made. The verb should be in its root form (unconjugated – meaning no ending changes). What is the root form of “been”?

Examples:

The infinitive form of “going” is “to go.”

“walked” is “to walk”

“began” is “to begin”

See section 3.18 of the APA manual or the OWC’s resource on � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Verb_Tenses.pdf" ��verb tenses� for additional support.

�Continue applying previously made comments throughout this page.

�Numbers one through nine should be spelled out in completely. When using numbers 10 and above, numerals are used.

Example: four, 24

See section 4.31 of the APA manual.

�The first line of each paragraph should be indented 1/2in from the left margin. See section 8.03 of the APA manual.

�Conclusions are comprised of the main points of the paper. Consider adding more specific content from within your paper to this section to fully draw your argument to a close. See section 2.08 of the APA manual.

��The Reference page should be on its own separate page with the word “References” (in regular style, size 12, Times New Roman font) placed on the top line. One double-space should be placed after, then the first reference should begin. The first line of the reference should be left-aligned flush with the left margin. The second and subsequent lines should have a hanging indent of 1/2in. References should be in alphabetical order by author last name and double spaced within references and between references. See Section 2.11 of the APA manual.

��Improper APA formatting. The first letter in the first word of titles contained in the references page should be capitalized with all other letters remaining lowercase except if a proper noun or name is present (if one of these is present, you may capitalize the first letter of those words) or if there is a colon. If a colon is present, capitalize the first letter of the first word after the colon with all other letters remaining lowercase thereafter. Apply throughout. See section 7.01 of the APA manual.

Example:

Smith, A. B. (2018). The story of Hansel and Gretel:

An analysis of the bond of a brother and

sister. Short Stories, 49(15), 171-191.

�Titles of periodicals should be spelled out entirely and placed in italic style font. Apply thoughout.

Example:

Incorrect – Journal of Arts & Sci.

Correct - Journal of Arts and Sciences

See section 6.29 of the APA manual.

�In general, most journal articles are more than one page in length. Double-check this source to be sure all pages are included in the reference entry. Apply throughout.

Example: 6-26

See section 6.30 of the APA manual.

�When preparing reference entries for books, the entry should appear as seen below. Be sure to pay close attention to the components and component placement, punctuation, capitalization, and font style. Apply throughout.

Example book:

Smith, A. B. (2018). Meterology of the world. New York,

NY: Wright Publishing, Inc.

See section 7.02 of the APA manual or see the OWC’s � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sample_Paper_-_APA_-_CMO_11072018.pdf" �APA Sample Paper� and the � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/academics/casas/academicsuccess/index.cfm?PID=11960" �APA Format Quick Guide� for additional formatting explanations.

�Commas are used in reference entries to separate two or more authors names.

Example:

Smith, A.B., & Thomas, B. C. (2018).

See sections 6.27 and 7.01 of the APA manual or see the OWC’s � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sample_Paper_-_APA_-_CMO_11072018.pdf" �APA Sample Paper� and the � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/academics/casas/academicsuccess/index.cfm?PID=11960" �APA Format Quick Guide� for additional formatting explanations.

�When preparing reference entries for websites, the entry should appear as seen below. Be sure to pay close attention to the components and component placement, punctuation, capitalization, and font style. Apply throughout.

Example website:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title

of document. Retrieved from http://exactweb address

See the OWC’s � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/media/1171/Sample_Paper_-_APA_-_CMO_11072018.pdf" �APA Sample Paper� and the � HYPERLINK "https://www.liberty.edu/academics/casas/academicsuccess/index.cfm?PID=11960" �APA Format Quick Guide� for additional formatting explanations.

���������This was an interesting paper! I offered comments on formatting, style, content, and grammar. There are some areas which I encourage you to address for improvements. Focus on correcting APA formatting issues (references, level headings, citations, paragraph indentations, etc.). Also, concentrate on proofreading your paper to locate all fragments, run-on sentences, and comma splices and turn those into complete sentences. Moreover, consider adding additional specific main points from your paper to your “Summary” section to fully draw the paper to a close. As you revise your paper, I recommend reviewing the APA manual and review guidelines for formatting. I hope my comments have helped you! If you have any specific questions that I did not address here, feel free to � HYPERLINK "mailto:onlinewriting@liberty.edu?subject=Quick%20Question" \t "_blank" �email the OWC�.  If you need further assistance, feel free to request a Skype appointment via the  � HYPERLINK "https://sharepoint.liberty.edu/sites/MUWP/OTSsite/_layouts/FormServer.aspx?XsnLocation=https://sharepoint.liberty.edu/sites/MUWP/InfoPath_Form_Templates/OWC-Request_Tutoring.xsn&SaveLocation=https%3A%2F%2Fsharepoint%2Eliberty%2Eedu%2Fsites%2FMUWP%2FOTSsite%2FRequest%20Tutoring%20Assistance&ClientInstalled=false&Source=https%3A%2F%2Fsharepoint%2Eliberty%2Eedu%2Fsites%2FMUWP%2FOTSsite%2FRequest%2520Tutoring%2520Assistance%2FForms%2FMyItems%2Easpx&DefaultItemOpen=1&_ga=2.102969732.529748525.1533327736-1343783036.1533327736" \t "_blank" �Skype request form� or you can contact � HYPERLINK "https://na01.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Flibertyu.webex.com%2Fsc3300%2Fsupportcenter%2Fwebacd.do%3Fsiteurl%3Dlibertyu%26WQID%3D7136e4602c7e3e8f6bd498bfdc56f5aa%26siteurl%3Dlibertyu%26apiname%3Dwebacd%26servicename%3DSC%26needFilter%3Dfalse%26rnd%3D8750696636%26isurlact%3Dtrue%26entactname%3D%252Fwebacd.do%26entappname%3Durl3300%26renewticket%3D0&data=02%7C01%7Cjnecessary4%40liberty.edu%7Cc0cf2151d538486a072a08d691cda370%7Cbaf8218eb3024465a9934a39c97251b2%7C0%7C0%7C636856709723089228&sdata=6BrYjF%2Bmjr9SMTOWwdK8nc0hdv6isJxguTxk3lJJZeg%3D&reserved=0" \t "_blank" \o "Original URL: https://libertyu.webex.com/sc3300/supportcenter/webacd.do?siteurl=libertyu&WQID=7136e4602c7e3e8f6bd498bfdc56f5aa&siteurl=libertyu&apiname=webacd&servicename=SC&needFilter=false&rnd=8750696636&isurlact=true&entactname=%2Fwebacd.do&entappname=url33" �the live chat�. I also encourage you to access � HYPERLINK "http://www.liberty.edu/index.cfm?PID=12268" \t "_blank" �the writing aids� and to fill out our anonymous Student Satisfaction Survey located at the bottom of your student request form. Thank you for using the OWC. I hope to work with you again in the future!

Jessica