W2 assignment complete Due 9/20

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Visually Speaking

How does the image above connote editing and proofreading? What tools could a writer use for this phase of the writing process?

Editing and proofreading allow you to fine-tune your writing, making it ready to hand in. When you edit, look first for words, phrases, and sentences that sound awkward, uninteresting, or unclear. When you proofread, check your writing for spelling, mechanics, usage, and grammar errors. Ask one of your writing peers to help you.

The guidelines and strategies given in this chapter will help you edit your writing for style and clarity and proofread it for errors.

Editing and Proofreading6 Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand editing. ▶ Combine short, simplistic

sentences.

▶ Expand sentences to create a more expressive style.

▶ Improve sentence style. ▶ Use effective words. ▶ Proofread your writing.

Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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The Writing Process94

 Editing Your Revised Draft When you have thoroughly revised your writing, you need to edit it so as to make it clear and concise enough to present to readers. Use the editing guidelines below to check your revised draft.

Review the overall style of your writing. 1. Read your revised writing aloud. Better yet, have a writing peer read it aloud to you.

Highlight any writing that doesn’t read smoothly and naturally.

2. Check that your style fits the rhetorical situation.

Goal: Does your writing sound as if you wrote it with a clear aim in mind? Do the sentence style and word choice match the goal?

Reader: Is the tone sincere? Does the writing sound authentic and honest?

Subject: Does the writing suit the subject and your treatment of it in terms of seriousness or playfulness, complexity or simplicity?

3. Examine your sentences. Check them for clarity, conciseness, and variety. Replace sentences that are wordy or rambling; combine or expand sentences that are short and choppy. Also, vary the beginnings of your sentences and avoid sentence patterns that are too predictable. (See pages 95–101.)

Consider word choice. 1. Avoid redundancy. Be alert for words or phrases that are used together but mean

nearly the same thing.

repeat again red in color refer back

2. Watch for repetition. When used appropriately, repetition can add rhythm and coherence to your writing. When used ineffectively, however, it can be a real distraction.

The man looked as if he were in his late seventies. The man was dressed in an old suit. I soon realized that the man was homeless. . . .

3. Look for general nouns, verbs, and modifiers. Specific words are much more effective than general ones. (See page 102.)

The girl moved on the bench. (general) Rosie slid quietly to the end of the park bench. (specific)

4. Avoid highly technical terms. Check for jargon or technical terms that your readers will not know or that you haven’t adequately explained. (See page 103.)

As the capillaries bleed, platelets work with fibrinogens to form a clot.

5. Use fair language. Replace words or phrases that are biased or demeaning. (See pages 104–106.)

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Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 95

 Combining Sentences Effective sentences often contain several basic ideas that work together to show relationships and make connections. Here are five basic ideas followed by seven examples of how the ideas can be combined into effective sentences.

1. The longest and largest construction project in history was the Great Wall of China.

2. The project took 1,700 years to complete.

3. The Great Wall of China is 1,400 miles long.

4. It is between 18 and 30 feet high.

5. It is up to 32 feet wide.

Edit short, simplistic sentences. Combine your short, simplistic sentences into longer, more detailed sentences. Sentence combining is generally carried out in the following ways:

■ Use a series to combine three or more similar ideas.

The Great Wall of China is 1,400 miles long, between 18 and 30 feet high, and up to 32 feet wide.

■ Use a relative pronoun (who, whose, that, which) to introduce subordinate (less important) ideas.

The Great Wall of China, which is 1,400 miles long and between 18 and 30 feet high, took 1,700 years to complete.

■ Use an introductory phrase or clause.

Having taken 1,700 years to complete, the Great Wall of China was the longest construction project in history.

■ Use a semicolon (and a conjunctive adverb if appropriate).

The Great Wall took 1,700 years to complete; it is 1,400 miles long and up to 30 feet high and 32 feet wide.

■ Repeat a key word or phrase to emphasize an idea.

The Great Wall of China was the longest construction project in history, a project that took 1,700 years to complete.

■ Use correlative conjunctions (either, or; not only, but also) to compare or contrast two ideas in a sentence.

The Great Wall of China is not only up to 30 feet high and 32 feet wide, but also 1,400 miles long.

■ Use an appositive (a word or phrase that renames) to emphasize an idea.

The Great Wall of China—the largest construction project in history—is 1,400 miles long, 32 feet wide, and up to 30 feet high.

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The Writing Process96

 Expanding Sentences Expand sentences when you edit so as to connect related ideas and make room for new information. Length has no value in and of itself: The best sentence is still the shortest one that says all it has to say. An expanded sentence, however, is capable of saying more—and saying it more expressively.

Use cumulative sentences. Modern writers often use an expressive sentence form called the cumulative sentence. A cumulative sentence is made of a general “base clause” that is expanded by adding modifying words, phrases, or clauses. In such a sentence, details are added before and after the main clause, creating an image-rich thought. Here’s an example of a cumulative sentence, with the base clause or main idea in boldface:

In preparation for her Spanish exam, Julie was studying at the kitchen table, completely focused, memorizing a list of vocabulary words.

Discussion: Notice how each new modifier adds to the richness of the final sentence. Also notice that each of these modifying phrases is set off by a comma. Here’s another sample sentence:

With his hands on his face, Tony was laughing halfheartedly, looking puzzled and embarrassed.

Discussion: Such a cumulative sentence provides a way to write description that is rich in detail, without rambling. Notice how each modifier changes the flow or rhythm of the sentence.

Expand with details. Here are seven basic ways to expand a main idea:

1. with adjectives and adverbs: half heartedly, once again

2. with prepositional phrases: with his hands on his face

3. with absolute phrases: his head tilted to one side

4. with participial (ing or ed) phrases: looking puzzled

5. with infinitive phrases: to hide his embarrassment

6. with subordinate clauses: while his friend talks

7. with relative clauses: who isn’t laughing at all

InSIght: To edit sentences for more expressive style, it is best to (1) know your grammar and punctuation (especially commas); (2) practice tightening, combining, and expanding sentences using the guidelines in this chapter; and (3) read carefully, looking for models of well-constructed sentences.

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Writing with Sources: When you integrate a quotation into the flow of text, make sure that the quotation works with the material around it. Either make the quotation a grammatical part of the sentence, or introduce the quotation with a complete sentence followed by a colon.

Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 97

 Checking for Sentence Style Writer E. B. White advised young writers to “approach sentence style by way of simplicity, plainness, orderliness, and sincerity.” That’s good advice from a writer steeped in style. It’s also important to know what to look for when editing your sentences. The information on this page and the following four pages will help you edit your sentences for style and correctness.

Avoid these sentence problems. Always check for and correct the following types of sentence problems. Turn to the pages listed below for guidelines and examples when attempting to fix problems in your sentences.

Short, Choppy Sentences: Combine or expand any short, choppy sentences; use the examples and guidelines on page 95. Flat, Predictable Sentences: Rewrite any sentences that sound predictable and uninteresting by varying their structures and expanding them with modifying words, phrases, and clauses. (See pages 98–100.) Incorrect Sentences: Look carefully for fragments, run-ons, and comma splices and correct them accordingly. Unclear Sentences: Edit any sentences that contain unclear wording, misplaced modifiers, dangling modifiers, or incomplete comparisons. Unacceptable Sentences: Change sentences that include nonstandard language, double negatives, or unparallel construction. Unnatural Sentences: Rewrite sentences that contain jargon, clichés, or flowery language. (See page 103.)

Review your writing for sentence variety. Use the following strategy to review your writing for variety in terms of sentence beginnings, lengths, and types.

■ In one column on a piece of paper, list the opening words in each of your sentences. Then decide if you need to vary some of your sentence beginnings.

■ In another column, identify the number of words in each sentence. Then decide if you need to change the lengths of some of your sentences.

■ In a third column, list the kinds of sentences used (exclamatory, declarative, interrogative, and so on). Then, based on your analysis, use the instructions on the next two pages to edit your sentences as needed.

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Writing with Sources: When you refer to ideas from a source, use the “historical present tense.” That is, refer to the person and her or his work in the present tense—“Einstein writes that relativity . . .” Use past tense only if you want to emphasize the pastness of the source.

The Writing Process98

Vary sentence structures. To energize your sentences, vary their structures using one or more of the methods shown on this page and the next.

1. Vary sentence openings. Move a modifying word, phrase, or clause to the front of the sentence to stress that modifier. However, avoid creating dangling or misplaced modifiers.

The norm: We apologize for the inconvenience this may have caused you.

Variation: For the inconvenience this may have caused you, we apologize.

2. Vary sentence lengths. Short sentences (ten words or fewer) are ideal for making points crisply. Medium sentences (ten to twenty words) should carry the bulk of your information. When well crafted, occasional long sentences (more than twenty words) can develop and expand your ideas.

Short: Welcome back to Magnolia Suites!

Medium: Unfortunately, your confirmed room was unavailable last night when you arrived. For the inconvenience this may have caused you, we apologize.

Long: Because several guests did not depart as scheduled, we were forced to provide you with accommodations elsewhere; however, for your trouble, we were happy to cover the cost of last night’s lodging.

3. Vary sentence kinds. The most common sentence is declarative—it states a point. For variety, try exclamatory, imperative, interrogative, and conditional statements.

Exclamatory: Our goal is providing you with outstanding service!

Declarative: To that end, we have upgraded your room at no expense.

Imperative: Please accept, as well, this box of chocolates as a gift to sweeten your stay.

Interrogative: Do you need further assistance?

Conditional: If you do, we are ready to fulfill your requests.

InSIght: In creative writing (stories, novels, plays), writers occasionally use fragments to vary the rhythm of their prose, emphasize a point, or create dialogue. Avoid fragments in academic or business writing.

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Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 99

4. Vary sentence arrangements. Where do you want to place the main point of your sentence? You make that choice by arranging sentence parts into loose, periodic, balanced, or cumulative patterns. Each pattern creates a specific effect.

 Loose Sentence

The Travel Center offers an attractive flight-reservation plan for students, one that allows you to collect bonus miles and receive $150,000 in life insurance per flight.

Analysis: This pattern is direct. It states the main point immediately (bold), and then tacks on extra information.

 Periodic Sentence

Although this plan requires that you join the Travel Center’s Student-Flight Club and pay the $10 admission fee, in the long run you will save money!

Analysis: This pattern postpones the main point (bold) until the end. The sentence builds to the point, creating an indirect, dramatic effect.

 Balanced Sentence

Joining the club in your freshman year will save you money over your entire college career; in addition, accruing bonus miles over four years will earn you a free trip to Europe!

Analysis: This pattern gives equal weight to complementary or contrasting points (bold); the balance is often signaled by a comma and a conjunction (and, but) or by a semicolon. Often a conjunctive adverb (however, nevertheless) or a transitional phrase (in addition, even so) will follow the semicolon to further clarify the relationship.

 Cumulative Sentence

Because the club membership is in your name, you can retain its benefits as long as you are a student, even if you transfer to a different college or go on to graduate school.

Analysis: This pattern puts the main idea (bold) in the middle of the sentence, surrounding it with modifying words, phrases, and clauses.

5. Use positive repetition. Although you should avoid needless repetition, you might use emphatic repetition to repeat a key word to stress a point.

 Repetitive Sentence

Each year, more than a million young people who read poorly leave high school unable to read well, functionally illiterate.

 Emphatic Sentence

Each year, more than a million young people leave high school functionally illiterate, so illiterate that they can’t read daily newspapers, job ads, or safety instructions.

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Writing with Sources: When using sources, smoothly integrate text references to those sources. (For guidelines, see pages 491–528 for MLA and pages 529–558 for APA.)

The Writing Process100

Use parallel structure. Coordinated sentence elements should be parallel—that is, they should be written in the same grammatical forms. Parallel structures save words, clarify relationships, and present the information in the correct sequence. Follow these guidelines.

1. For words, phrases, or clauses in a series, keep elements consistent.

Not parallel: I have tutored students in Biology 101, also Chemistry 102, not to mention my familiarity with Physics 200.

Parallel: I have tutored students in Biology 101, Chemistry 102, and Physics 200.

Not parallel: I have volunteered as a hospital receptionist, have been a hospice volunteer, and as an emergency medical technician.

Parallel: I have done volunteer work as a hospital receptionist, a hospice counselor, and an emergency medical technician.

2. Use both parts of correlative conjunctions (either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also; as, so; whether, so; both, and) so that both segments of the sentence are balanced.

Not parallel: Not only did Blake College turn 20 this year. Its enrollment grew by 16 percent.

Parallel: Not only did Blake College turn 20 this year, but its enrollment also grew by 16 percent.

3. Place a modifier correctly so that it clearly indicates the word or words to which it refers.

Confusing: MADD promotes severely punishing and eliminating drunk driving because this offense leads to a great number of deaths and sorrow.

Parallel: MADD promotes eliminating and severely punishing drunk driving because this offense leads to many deaths and untold sorrow.

4. Place contrasting details in parallel structures (words, phrases, or clauses) to stress a contrast.

Weak contrast: The average child watches 24 hours of television a week and reads for 36 minutes.

Strong contrast: Each week, the average child watches television for 24 hours but reads for only about half an hour.

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Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 101

Avoid weak constructions. Avoid constructions (like those below) that weaken your writing.

 Nominal Constructions

The nominal construction is both sluggish and wordy. Avoid it by changing the noun form of a verb (description or instructions) to a verb (describe or instruct). At the same time, delete the weak verb that preceded the noun.

nomInal ConStRuCtIonS (noun form underlined) StRong VeRBS

Tim gave a description . . . Tim described . . . Lydia provided instructions . . . Lydia instructed . . .

Sluggish: John had a discussion with the tutors regarding the incident. They gave him their confirmation that similar developments had occurred before, but they had not provided submissions of their reports.

Energetic: John discussed the incident with the tutors. They confirmed that similar problems had developed before, but they hadn’t submitted their reports.

 Expletives

Expletives such as “it is” and “there is” are fillers that serve no purpose in most sen tences— except to make them wordy and unnatural.

Sluggish: It is likely that Nathan will attend the Communication Department’s Honors Banquet. There is a journalism scholarship that he might win.

Energetic: Nathan will likely attend the Communication Department’s Honors Banquet and might win a journalism scholarship.

 Negative Constructions

Sentences constructed upon the negatives no, not, neither/nor can be wordy and difficult to understand. It’s simpler to state what is the case.

Negative: During my four years on the newspaper staff, I have not been behind in making significant contributions. My editorial skills have certainly not deteriorated, as I have never failed to tackle challenging assignments.

Positive: During my four years on the newspaper staff, I have made significant contributions. My editorial skills have steadily developed as I have tackled difficult assignments.

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The Writing Process102

 Avoiding Imprecise, Misleading, and Biased Words

As you edit your writing, check your choice of words carefully. The information on the next five pages will help you edit for word choice.

Substitute specific words. Replace vague nouns and verbs with words that generate clarity and energy.

 Specific Nouns

Make it a habit to use specific nouns for subjects. General nouns (woman, school) give the reader a vague, uninteresting picture. More specific nouns (actress, university) give the reader a better picture. Finally, very specific nouns (Meryl Streep, Notre Dame) are the type that can make your writing clear and colorful.

geneRal to SpeCIfIC nounS

 Vivid Verbs

Like nouns, verbs can be too general to create a vivid word picture. For example, the verb looked does not say the same thing as stared, glared, glanced, or peeked.

■ Whenever possible, use a verb that is strong enough to stand alone without the help of an adverb.

Verb and adverb: John fell down in the student lounge.

Vivid verb: John collapsed in the student lounge. ■ Avoid overusing the “be” verbs (is, are, was, were) and helping verbs. Often

a main verb can be made from another word in the same sentence.

A “be” verb: Cole is someone who follows international news.

A stronger verb: Cole follows international news. ■ Use active rather than passive verbs. (Use passive verbs only if you want to downplay

who is performing the action in a sentence. See page 81.)

Passive verb: Another provocative essay was submitted by Kim.

Active verb: Kim submitted another provocative essay. ■ Use verbs that show rather than tell.

A verb that tells: Dr. Lewis is very thorough.

A verb that shows: Dr. Lewis prepares detailed, interactive lectures.

Person Place Thing Idea

woman school book theory

actor university novel scientific theory

Meryl Streep Notre Dame Pride and Prejudice relativity

Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

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Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 103

Replace jargon and clichés. Replace language that is overly technical or difficult to understand. Also replace overused, worn-out words.

 Understandable Language

Jargon is language used in a certain profession or by a particular group of people. It may be acceptable to use if your audience is that group of people, but to most ears jargon will sound technical and unnatural.

Jargon: The bottom line is that our output is not within our game plan. Clear: Production is not on schedule. Jargon: I’m having conceptual difficulty with these academic queries. Clear: I don’t understand these review questions. Jargon: Pursuant to our conversation, I have forwarded you a remittance

attached herewith. Clear: As we discussed, I am mailing you the check.

 Fresh and Original Writing

Clichés are overused words or phrases. They give the reader no fresh view and no concrete picture. Because clichés spring quickly to mind (for both the writer and the reader), they are easy to write and often remain unedited.

an axe to grind piece of cake as good as dead planting the seed beat around the bush rearing its ugly head between a rock and a hard place stick your neck out burning bridges throwing your weight around easy as pie up a creek

 Purpose and Voice

Other aspects of your writing may also be tired and overworked. Be alert to the two types of clichés described below.

Clichés of Purpose: ■ Sentimental papers gushing about an ideal friend or family member, or droning

on about a moving experience ■ Overused topics with recycled information and predictable examples

Clichés of Voice: ■ Writing that assumes a false sense of authority: “I have determined that there are

three basic types of newspapers. My preference is for the third.” ■ Writing that speaks with little or no sense of authority: “I f lipped when I saw

Viewpoints.” ■ Writing that is pretentious: “Because I have researched the topic thoroughly,

readers should not question my conclusion.”

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The Writing Process104

Change biased words. When depicting individuals or groups according to their differences, use language that implies equal value and respect for all people.

 Words Referring to Ethnicity

aCCeptaBle geneRal teRmS aCCeptaBle SpeCIfIC teRmS American Indians, Cherokee people, Inuit people, and so forth Native Americans

Asian Americans Chinese Americans, Japanese (not Orientals) Americans, and so forth

Latinos, Latinas, Mexican Americans, Cubans

Hispanics Americans, and so forth

African Americans, blacks “African American” has come into wide acceptance, though the term “black” is preferred by some individuals.

Anglo Americans (English ancestry), European Americans Use these terms to avoid the notion that “American,” used alone, means “white.”

Additional References

not ReCommended pRefeRRed Eurasian, mulatto person of mixed ancestry

nonwhite person of color

Caucasian white

American (to mean U.S. citizen) U.S. citizen

 Words Referring to Age

age gRoup aCCeptaBle teRmS up to age 13 or 14 boys, girls

between 13 and 19 youth, young people, young men, young women

late teens and 20s young adults, young women, young men

30s to age 60 adults, men, women

60 and older older adults, older people (not elderly)

65 and older seniors (senior citizens also acceptable)

InSIght: Whenever you write about a person with a disability, an impairment, or other special condition, give the person and your readers the utmost respect. Nothing is more distracting to a reader than an insensitive or outdated reference.

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Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 105

 Words Referring to Disabilities or Impairments

In the recent past, some writers were choosing alternatives to the term disabled, including physically challenged, exceptional, or special. However, it is not generally held that these new terms are precise enough to serve those who live with disabilities. Of course, degrading labels such as crippled, invalid, and maimed, as well as overly negative terminology, must be avoided.

not ReCommended pRefeRRed handicapped disabled birth defect congenital disability stutter, stammer, lisp speech impairment an AIDS victim person with AIDS suffering from cancer person who has cancer mechanical foot prosthetic foot false teeth dentures

 Words Referring to Conditions

People with various disabilities and conditions have sometimes been referred to as though they were their condition (quadriplegics, depressives, epileptics) instead of people who happen to have a particular disability. As much as possible, remember to refer to the person first, the disability second.

not ReCommended pRefeRRed the disabled people with disabilities cripples people who have difficulty walking the retarded people with a developmental disability dyslexics students with dyslexia neurotics patients with neuroses subjects, cases participants, patients quadriplegics people who are quadriplegic wheelchair users people who use wheelchairs

 Additional Terms

Make sure you understand the following terms that address specific impairments:

hearing impairment = partial hearing loss, hard of hearing (not deaf, which is total loss of hearing)

visual impairment = partially sighted (not blind, which is total loss of vision)

communicative disorder = speech, hearing, and learning disabilities affecting communication

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The Writing Process106

 Words Referring to Gender

■ Use parallel language for both sexes:

The men and the women rebuilt the school together. Hank and Marie Mr. Robert Gumble, Mrs. Joy Gumble

Note: The courtesy titles Mr., Ms., Mrs., and Miss ought to be used according to the person’s preference.

■ Use nonsexist alternatives to words with masculine connotations:

humanity (not mankind) synthetic (not man-made) artisan (not craftsman)

■ Do not use masculine-only or feminine-only pronouns (he, she, his, her) when you want to refer to a human being in general:

A politician can kiss privacy good-bye when he runs for office. (not recommended)

Instead, use he or she, change the sentence to plural, or eliminate the pronoun:

A politician can kiss privacy good-bye when he or she runs for office. Politicians can kiss privacy good-bye when they run for office. A politician can kiss privacy good-bye when running for office.

■ Do not use gender-specific references in the salutation of a business letter when you don’t know the person’s name:

Dear Sir: Dear Gentlemen: (neither is recommended)

Instead, address a position:

Dear Personnel Officer: Dear Members of the Economic Committee:

 Occupational Issues

not ReCommended pRefeRRed

chairman chair, presiding officer, moderator salesman sales representative, salesperson clergyman minister, priest, rabbi male/female nurse nurse male/female doctor doctor, physician mailman mail carrier, postal worker, letter carrier insurance man insurance agent fireman firefighter businessman executive, manager, businessperson congressman member of Congress, representative, senator steward, stewardess flight attendant policeman, policewoman police officer

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Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 107

 Proofreading Your Writing The following guidelines will help you check your revised writing for spelling, mechanics, usage, grammar, and form.

Review punctuation and mechanics. 1. Check for proper use of commas before coordinating conjunctions in compound

sentences, after introductory clauses and long introductory phrases, between items in a series, and so on.

2. Look for apostrophes in contractions, plurals, and possessive nouns.

3. Examine quotation marks in quoted information, titles, or dialogue.

4. Watch for proper use of capital letters for first words in written conversation and for proper names of people, places, and things.

Look for usage and grammar errors. 1. Look for words that writers commonly misuse: there/their/they’re; accept/except.

2. Check for verb use. Subjects and verbs should agree in number: Singular subjects go with singular verbs; plural subjects go with plural verbs. Verb tenses should be consistent throughout.

3. Review for pronoun/antecedent agreement problems. A pronoun and its antecedent must agree in number.

Check for spelling errors. 1. Use a spell checker. Your spell checker will catch most errors.

2. Check each spelling you are unsure of. Especially check those proper names and other special words your spell checker won’t know.

3. Consult a handbook. Refer to a list of commonly misspelled words, as well as an up-to-date dictionary.

Check the writing for form and presentation. 1. Note the title. A title should be appropriate and lead into the writing.

2. Examine any quoted or cited material. Are all sources of information properly presented and documented? (See pages 491–528 and 529–558.)

3. Look over the finished copy of your writing. Does it meet the requirements for a final manuscript? (See page 130.)

Audio Video ModelWeb Link Exercise Interactive

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The Writing Process108

Cross-Curricular Connections Different disciplines have different documentation systems, each with its own conventions, formats, and punctuation practices. For MLA style, see pages 491–528, and for APA style, see pages 529–558.

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following activities.

1. The nineteenth-century British writer Matthew Arnold offers this advice to writers about refining their writing: “Have something to say and say it as clearly as you can. That is the only secret of style.” Does your own writing clearly communicate a meaningful message? Explain why or why not.

2. Choose a writing assignment that you have recently completed. Edit the sentences in this writing for style and correctness using pages 94–101 as a guide. Then use pages 102–106 in this chapter to edit the piece of writing for vague words, jargon, clichés, and biased language.

3. Combine some of the following ideas into longer, more mature sentences. Write at least four sentences, using page 95 as a guide.

Dogs can be difficult to train. The necessary supplies include a leash and treats. Patience is also a necessity. Dogs like to please their owners. Training is not a chore for dogs. A well-trained dog is a pleasure to its owner.

Learning-Outcomes Checklist I understand that editing involves checking overall sentence style and word choice.

I have combined short, simplistic sentences.

I have expanded sentences, where appropriate, to create a more expressive style.

I have avoided sentence problems and improved sentence style. ■ Varying sentence structures ■ Varying sentence arrangements ■ Using parallel structure ■ Avoiding weak constructions

I have made sure that I use strong, effective words. ■ Using specific nouns and vivid verbs ■ Replacing jargon and clichés ■ Changing biased words

I have proofread my writing, checking punctuation, mechanics, usage, grammar, and spelling—as well as form and presentation.

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Agreement A. Subject-Verb Agreement

On you own paper, correct the agreement errors in the following paragraph by writing down the line number and any incorrect verb, crossed out, with the correct form beside it.

B. Pronoun-Antecedent and Subject-Verb Agreement

Provide the correct pronoun or verb for each blank in the following sentences. Use the directions or choices in parentheses.

1. Some people __________ math with an abacus. (do/does)

2. This counting device has been used for thousands of years, and __________ is still very popular in Eastern nations. (pronoun for “device”)

3. The earliest examples __________ employed between 2700 and 2300 B.C. in Sumeria. (was/were)

4. As recently as the 1990s, school children in the Soviet Union were taught to use __________ . (pronoun for “examples” in the previous sentence)

5. Pocket-sized abacuses __________ still popular in Japan, despite the availability of portable calculators. (is/are)

6. Expert abacus users __________ able to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and even calculate square roots and cube roots very quickly. (is/are)

Avoiding Sentence Errors Exercises:

There is in beautiful Barcelona, Spain, many surprises to be found. Barcelona, Spain’s second-largest city, and Madrid, the country’s capital, has a traditional rivalry. At one time, the population of Barcelona were forbidden to speak the city’s native tongue, Catalan, by a royal decree from Madrid. Today, however, neither Spanish nor Catalan are discriminated against in the region. One of the sites that belongs on every tour, the outlandish cathedral La Sagrada Familia (“The Sacred Family”), was designed by Antoni Gaudi. Everyone using the word “gaudy” actually has Gaudi’s name on his or her tongue. A series of thirteenth- to fifteenth- century palaces now house the Museo Picasso, which display a history of Picasso’s work and his many years living in Barcelona. Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, or The Young Ladies of Avignon, are one example of a painting inspired by his time in Barcelona. Whether you prefer cobblestone streets with centuries-old buildings or asphalt streets with modern shops and taverns, each are found in Barcelona. At night, every one of the streets seem to have a festive air, ref lecting the vivacity of Spanish culture.

Handbook660

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Visually Speaking

At first glance, research looks like a dry-as-dust business carried out by obsessed scholars in dim libraries and mad scientists in cluttered laboratories. Research couldn’t be further from the reality of your life.

But is it? Consider car tires. Before these were mounted, scientists researched which materials would resist wear and which adhesives would keep treads on steel belts. Sloppy research could cause blowouts; good research builds safe tires.

For you, the rewards of research projects can be great— new insights into a subject that really interests you, a deepened understanding of your major or profession, reliable knowledge to share with others, and sharpened thinking skills. This chapter will help you get started on such a project.

Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources

Review the photograph above. What does this image suggest to you about research? Does the image help you visualize getting started on a research project?

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand the rhetorical context of research writing.

▶ Implement a workable process and plan.

▶ Develop research questions and a thesis.

▶ Understand the breadth of resources available and select fitting resources.

▶ Engage and evaluate sources.

▶ Develop a working bibliography.

▶ Avoid plagiarism.

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Quick Guide Papers with Documented Research

When you work on a research project, you ask important questions, look systematically for answers, and share your conclusions with readers. In other words, it’s all about curiosity, discovery, and dialogue.

■ Starting Point: The assignment usually relates to a course concept, so consider what your instructor wants you to learn and how your project will be evaluated. Then take ownership of the project by looking for an angle that makes the writing relevant for you.

■ Purpose: The project requires you to conduct research and share results. Your main goal is to discover the complex truth about a topic and clarify that discovery for others.

■ Form: The traditional research paper is a fairly long essay (5 to 15 pages) complete with thesis, supporting paragraphs, integrated sources, and careful documentation. However, you may be asked to shape your research into a field report, a website, or a multimedia presentation.

■ Audience: Traditionally, research writing addresses “the academic community,” a group made up mainly of instructors and students. However, your actual audience may be more specific: addicted smokers, all Floridians, fellow immigrants, and so on.

■ Voice: The tone is usually formal or semiformal, but check your instructor’s expectations. In any research writing, maintain a thoughtful, confidently measured tone. After all, your research has made you somewhat of an authority on the topic.

■ Point of View: Generally, research writers avoid the pronouns “I” and “you” in an effort to remain properly objective and academic sounding. Unfortunately, this practice can result in an overuse of both the pronoun “one” and the passive voice. Some instructors encourage students to connect research with experience, meaning that you may use the pronouns “I” and “you” occasionally. Be careful, however, to keep the focus where it belongs—on the topic. Bottom line: Follow your instructor’s requirements concerning pronoun use. For more on developing a strong academic style for your research writing, see pages 79–80.

INSIGHT: The best research writing centers on your ideas—ideas you develop through thoughtful engagement with sources. In poor research papers, the sources dominate, and the writer’s perspective disappears.

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■ The Research Process: A Flowchart The research process involves getting started, planning, conducting the research, and organizing the results. This process is flexible enough to be adapted to diverse research projects. In fact, real research is typically dynamic: You might think during the planning phase that you’ve nailed down your topic, only to discover a surprising topical detour while conducting research. Generally, however, the research process maps out as shown below. When you get your assignment—whether to write a five-page paper on pasteurization or to develop a website on Middle Eastern political conflicts—review the process and tailor it to the task.

Getting Started • Review the assignment. • Consider your resources. • Choose a subject.

List or cluster your current ideas and opinions.

Talk with others to learn opposing opinions.

Conduct preliminary research in reference works.

Planning Your Research Narrow the topic, form a research question or working thesis, develop a research plan, and select keyword–searching terms.

Conducting Research

Take Careful Notes Conduct Primary

Research

Observe, interview, survey, or experiment.

Analyze primary documents and artifacts.

Search catalogs, indexes, databases, and the Internet.

Check books, articles, and websites.

Conduct Secondary Research

Reflect in your research journal.

Create and add to a working bibliography.

• Evaluate and take notes from sources.

• Summarize, paraphrase, and quote.

Organizing and Drafting • Answer your research question or refine your thesis. • Develop an outline. • Write the research paper, integrating and documenting sources.

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■ Getting Started: Getting Focused Early in your project, get focused by narrowing your topic, brainstorming research questions, and developing a working thesis. For help understanding assignments and selecting topics, as well as other prewriting strategies, see pages 32–37.

Establish a narrow, manageable topic. To do good research, you need an engaging, manageable topic. Once you have a broad topic, narrow your focus to a specific feature or angle that allows for in-depth research. Try these strategies:

■ Check your topic in the Library of Congress subject headings, available in your library. Note “narrower terms” listed (see page 424).

■ Read about your topic. By consulting specialized reference works, explore background that directs you to subtopics (see page 453).

■ Check the Internet. For example, follow a subject directory to see where your topic leads (see pages 462–467).

■ Freewrite to discover which aspect of the topic interests you most: a local angle, a connection with a group of people, or a personal concern.

Brainstorm research questions. Good research questions help you find meaningful information and ideas about your topic. These questions sharpen your research goal, and the answers will become the focus of your writing. Brainstorm questions by following these guidelines:

List both simple and substantial questions. Basic questions aim for factual answers. More complex questions get at analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

■ Question of fact: When did Kim Jong Il gain power in North Korea? ■ Question of interpretation: How did Kim Jong Il maintain power?

List main and secondary questions. Ask a primary question about your topic—the main issue that you want to get at. Then brainstorm secondary questions that you need to research to answer your primary question.

■ Main Question: Should consumers buy hydrogen fuel-cell cars? ■ Secondary Questions (Who, What, When, Where, Why, How): Who has

developed hydrogen fuel-cell cars? What is a hydrogen fuel-cell car? When were these cars developed? Where are hydrogen fuel-cell cars currently used? Why are they being developed? How does one work?

Broad topic Homelessness Bacteria and Viruses Alternative Energy Sources

manageable focus Homeless Families in Los Angeles Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicles

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Develop a working thesis. A working thesis offers a preliminary answer to your main research question. As your initial perspective on the topic, a good working thesis keeps you focused during research, helping you decide whether to carefully read a particular book or just skim it, fully explore a website or quickly skim through it. Make your working thesis a statement that demands “Prove it!” Don’t settle for a simple statement of fact about your topic; instead, choose a working thesis that seems debatable or that requires some explanation. Try this formula:

Testing Your Main Research Question Is the question so broad that I can’t answer it in the project’s time and page limits?

Is the question so narrow that I won’t be able to find sources?

Is the question so simple that it will be too easy to answer?

Will the question lead to significant sources and intellectual challenge?

Am I committed to answering this question? Does it interest me?

Will the question and answers interest my readers?

Working Thesis Checklist Does my working thesis focus on a single, limited topic?

Is my working thesis stated in a clear, direct sentence?

Does my working thesis convey my initial perspective about the topic?

Do I have access to enough good information to support this working thesis?

Does my working thesis direct me to write a paper that meets all assignment requirements?

INSIGHT: Your working thesis is written in sand, not stone. It may change as you research the topic because sources may push you in new directions. In fact, such change shows that you are engaging your sources and growing in your thinking.

Formula: Working Thesis = limited topic + tentative claim, statement, or hypothesis

Examples: E-communication technologies are rewiring our brains.

Downtown revitalization will have distinct economic, environmental, and social benefits.

Internet dating is weakening long-term relationships.

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■ Developing a Research Plan It pays to plan your research. In fact, minutes spent planning research can save hours doing research. With your limited topic, main research question, and working thesis in front of you, plan your project more fully.

Choose research methods. Consider these questions: What do you already know about the topic? What do you need to know? Which resources will help you answer your research question? Which resources does the assignment require? Based on your answers, map out a research plan that draws resources from fitting categories.

Background research: To find information about your topic’s context, central concepts, and key terms, take these steps:

■ Use the Library of Congress subject headings to find keywords for searching the library catalog, periodical databases, and the Internet (see page 424).

■ Conduct a preliminary search of the library catalog, journal databases, and the Internet to confirm that good resources on your topic exist.

■ Use specialized reference works to find background information, definitions, facts, and statistics (see page 453).

Field or primary research: If appropriate for your project, conduct field research: ■ Use interviews (page 448) or surveys (page 444–445) to get key information

from experts or others. ■ Conduct observations or experiments (page 443) to obtain hard data. ■ Analyze key documents or artifacts (pages 446–447).

Library research: Select important library resources: ■ Use scholarly books to get in-depth, reliable material (pages 452–453). ■ Use periodical articles (print or electronic) to get current, reliable information

(pages 454–456). Select from news sources, popular magazines, scholarly journals, and trade journals.

■ Consider other library resources, such as a documentary, recorded interview, pamphlet, marketing study, or government publication.

Internet research: Plan effective Internet searches using the following: ■ Search engines and subject guides: Choose tools that will lead you to quality

resources (pages 462–465). ■ Expert guidance: Select reputable websites that librarians or other experts

recommend (page 462). ■ Evaluation: Test all web resources for reliability (pages 468–471). ■ Limitations: How many web resources are you allowed to use, if any?

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Get organized to do research. An organized approach to doing your research will save you time, help you work efficiently, and prevent frustration. Get organized by addressing these issues:

Establishing Priorities for Resources, Time, and Effort ■ How much research material do you need? ■ What range of resources will give you quality, reliable information? ■ Which types of research does the assignment specify? Are you limited, for

example, in the number of Internet sources you can use? ■ What are the project’s priorities: What must you do? Which tasks are secondary

in nature? ■ What weight does the project carry in the course? How should you match your

time and effort with that weight?

InSIght: Gather more information than you could ever use in your paper. That richness gives you choices and allows you to sift for crucial information.

Selecting Research Methods and Systems ■ Given the resources and technologies available, select methods that help you do

research efficiently: signing out hard-copy library holdings or using interlibrary loan; photocopying book sections and journal articles; printing, saving, downloading, bookmarking, or e-mailing digital materials.

■ Develop a note-taking system. Choose from the note-card, double-entry notebook, copy-and-annotate, and research-log methods (pages 432–435). In addition, set up a working bibliography (pages 430–431).

■ Choose and review a documentation system. It’s likely that your instructor will designate a system such as MLA (pages 491–528) or APA (pages 529–558). If he or she doesn’t do so, then use a method that suits the subject matter and discipline. Review the system’s basic rules and strategies.

Establishing a Schedule The time frame for completing a research project obviously varies from one assignment to the next. What you have to work with is the time frame between getting the assignment and turning in the project at the deadline, whether that time frame is two weeks or two months, along with any intermediate deadlines set by your instructor for specific phases of the project (e.g., topic selection, project proposal, working bibliography, first draft). Generally, however, you should spend about half your time on research and half on writing. To stay on track, sketch out a preliminary schedule with tentative deadlines for completing each phase of your work.

Web Link: A schedule template is available at <www.thecollegewriter.com/4e>.

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■ Writing a Research Proposal For some research projects, you may need to submit a proposal early in the process. The proposal seeks to explain what you plan to research, why, and how. Such a proposal thus aims to show that the research is valid (makes good scholarly sense), to argue that the research is valuable (will lead to significant knowledge), to communicate your enthusiasm for the project, and to demonstrate that your plan is workable within the constraints of the assignment—all in order to gain your instructor’s feedback and approval. Note the parts modeled in the sample proposal.

Understand the parts of a research proposal.

1. Introduction: In a brief paragraph, state your research idea, explaining why the topic is important and worth researching. Provide any background information that the instructor may need.

2. Description: Discuss your proposed research topic by identifying the central issue or concern about the topic, indicating the main question that you want to answer through research, listing secondary questions that relate to the main question, stating a working thesis or hypothesis in response to the main question, and explaining the research outcomes that you expect from the study.

3. Plan (methods and procedures): Explain how you plan to answer your questions, how you plan to research your topic. Include an explanation of your primary research (the “first-hand” investigation), a description of research tools you plan to use (e.g., catalogs, reference works, lab equipment, survey software), and a working bibliography indicating your initial survey of resources.

4. Schedule: List deadlines that are part of the assignment and deadlines that you’ve set for yourself.

5. Approval Request: Ask for feedback and approval from your instructor.

Film Studies 201 Proposal: Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice as Fiction and Film

Gwendolyn Mackenzie

Nearly 200 years after her death, Jane Austen’s novels still captivate readers, filmmakers, and filmgoers—including me. For my research paper, I will explore one aspect of this phenomenon within Pride and Prejudice and the 2005 film adaptation directed by Joe Wright.

Sample Research Proposal

The research proposal below offers a student’s plan for analyzing Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, both novel and film adaptation.

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Description: Specifically, I want to see how the novel and film explore gender prejudice. My main research question is, What sense do these texts make of prejudice as it relates to relationships between men and women? My working thesis is that the 2005 film portrayal of gender inequality in Pride and Prejudice highlights and intensifies the issue of gender inequality introduced in the novel.

This study of gender prejudice will allow me (1) to appreciate the treatment of this theme in fiction and in film, (2) to understand film adaptations more fully, and (3) to explain in a small way the Jane Austen phenomenon. As part of the project, I will write a 6-8 page paper.

Plan: My primary research will involve rereading the novel and reviewing the 2005 film adaptation. In terms of secondary research, I have done an initial search of our library’s catalog and of EBSCOhost for books and articles. This is my working bibliography:

Primary Sources Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice: An Authoritative Text, Background and Sources, Criticism. Ed.

Donald J. Gray. New York: Norton, 2001. Print. Wright, Joe. Pride and Prejudice. [U.K.]: Universal Pictures, 2005. Film.

Secondary Sources Cartmell, Deborah, and Imelda Whelehan. Adaptations: From Text to Screen, Screen to Text.

London; New York: Routledge, 2004. Print. Crusie, Jennifer. Flirting with Pride and Prejudice: Fresh Perspectives on the Original Chick-Lit

Masterpiece. Dallas: BenBella, 2005. Print. Grandi, Roberta. “The Passion Translated: Literary and Cinematic Rhetoric in Pride and

Prejudice (2005).” Literature Film Quarterly 36.1 (2008): 45-51. Print. McFarlane, Brian. “Something Old, Something New: ‘Pride and Prejudice’ on Screen.” Screen

Education (2005): 6-14. Print. Stovel, Nora Foster. “From Page to Screen: Dancing to the Altar in Recent Film Adaptations of

Jane Austen’s Novels.” Persuasions: The Jane Austen Journal (2006): 185-198. EBSCOhost. Web. 6 Nov. 2010.

Sutherland, Kathryn. Jane Austen’s Textual Lives: From Aeschylus to Bollywood. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. Print.

Todd, Janet M. The Cambridge Introduction to Jane Austen. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge UP, 2006. NetLibrary. Web. 6 Nov. 2010.

Schedule : Here is my schedule for completing this project: 1. Finish rereading the novel and reviewing the film: November 14. 2. Complete secondary research: November 20. 3. Develop outline for paper: November 23. 4. Finish first draft of paper: November 30. 5. Revise, edit, and proofread paper: December 4. 6. Submit paper: December 6.

Approval Request: Dr. Rajan, I would appreciate your feedback on my proposed project, as well as your approval of my plan.

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■ Exploring Information Resources and Sites To conduct thorough, creative, but efficient research, you need a sense of which types of resources are available for your project and where to find them. Check the tables that follow.

Consider different information resources. Examine the range of resources available: Which will give you the best information for your project? While one project (for example, a sociological report on airport behaviors) might require personal, direct sources, another project (for example, the effects of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the air transportation industry) might depend on government reports, business publications, and journal articles. Generally, a well-rounded research paper relies on a range of quality resources; in particular, it avoids relying on insubstantial web information.

Type of Resource Examples

Personal, direct resources

Memories, diaries, journals, logs, experiments, tests, observations, interviews, surveys

Reference works (print and electronic)

Dictionaries, thesauruses, encyclopedias, almanacs, yearbooks, atlases, directories, guides, handbooks, indexes, abstracts, catalogs, bibliographies

Books (print and electronic)

Nonfiction, how-to, biographies, fiction, trade books, scholarly and scientific studies

Periodicals and news sources

Print newspapers, magazines, and journals; broadcast news and news magazines; online magazines, news sources, and discussion groups

Audiovisual, digital, and multimedia resources

Graphics (tables, graphs, charts, maps, drawings, photos), audiotapes, CDs, videos, DVDs, webpages, online databases

Government publications Guides, programs, forms, legislation, regulations, reports, records, statistics

Business and nonprofit publications

Correspondence, reports, newsletters, pamphlets, brochures, ads, catalogs, instructions, handbooks, manuals, policies and procedures, seminar and training materials

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Consider different information sites. Where do you go to find the resources that you need? Consider the information “sites” listed below, remembering that many resources may be available in different forms in different locations. For example, a journal article may be available in library holdings or in an electronic database.

Information Location Specific “Sites”

People Experts (knowledge area, skill, occupation) Population segments or individuals (with representative or unusual experiences)

Libraries General: public, college, online

Specialized: legal, medical, government, business

Computer resources Computers: software, disks

Networks: Internet and other online services (e-mail, limited-access databases, discussion groups, MUDs, chat rooms, websites, blogs, YouTube, image banks, wikis); intranets

Mass media Radio (AM and FM)

Television (network, public, cable, satellite)

Print (newspapers, magazines, journals)

Testing, training, meeting, and observation sites

Plants, facilities, field sites, laboratories Research centers, universities, think tanks Conventions, conferences, seminars Museums, galleries, historical sites

Municipal, state, and federal government offices

Elected officials, representatives Offices and agencies, Government Printing Office Websites (GPO, www.gpoaccess.gov)

Business and nonprofit publications

Computer databases, company files

Desktop reference materials

Bulletin boards (physical and electronic)

Company and department websites

Departments and offices

Associations, professional organizations

Consulting, training, and business information services

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■ Conducting Effective Keyword Searches Keyword searching can help you find information in electronic library catalogs, online databases that index periodical articles (for example, Lexis-Nexis, EBSCOhost), print indexes to periodical publications (for example, Business Periodicals Index), Internet resources, print books, and e-books.

Choose keywords carefully. Keywords give you “compass points” for navigating through a sea of information. That’s why choosing the best keywords is crucial. Consider these tips:

1. Brainstorm a list of possible keywords—topics, titles, and names—based on your current knowledge and/or background reading.

2. Consult the Library of Congress subject headings. These books contain the keywords librarians use when classifying materials. For example, if you looked up immigrants, you would find the entry below, indicating keywords to use, along with narrower, related, and broader terms. When you are conducting subject searches of catalogs and databases, these are the terms that will get you the best results.

Library of Congress Excerpt

Immigrants (May Subd Geog) Here are entered works on foreign-born persons who

enter a country intending to become permanent residents or citizens. This heading may be locally subdivided by names of places where immigrants settle. For works discussing emigrants from a particular place, an additional heading is assigned to designate the nationality of origin of the emigrant group and the place to which they have immigrated, e.g., Chinese—United States: American—Foreign countries. UF Emigrants Foreign-born population Foreign population BT Persons RT Aliens NT Children of immigrants Social work with immigrants Teenage immigrants Women immigrants — Employment USE Alien labor — Housing (May Subd Geog) — — Great Britain — Legal status, laws, etc. USE Emigration and immigration law

Topic

Tips

“Used for”

“Broader term” “Related term”

“Narrower term”

Subtopic

Recommended keywords

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Use keyword strategies. The goal of a keyword search is to find quality research sources. To ensure that you identify the best resources available, follow these strategies:

Get to know the database. Look for answers to these questions: ■ What material does the database contain? What time frames? ■ What are you searching—authors, titles, subjects, full text? ■ What are the search rules? How can you narrow the search?

Use a shotgun approach. Start with the most likely keyword. If you have no “hits,” choose a related term. Once you get some hits, check the citations for clues regarding which words to use as you continue searching.

Use Boolean operators to refine your search. When you combine keywords with Boolean operators—such as those below—you will obtain better results.

Boolean Operators

Narrowing a Search And, +, not, - Use when one term gives you too many hits, especially irrelevant ones

buffalo and bison or buffalo + bison

buffalo not water +buffalo –water

Searches for citations containing both keywords

Searches for “buffalo” but not “water,” so that you eliminate material on water buffalo

Expanding a Search Or Combine a term providing few hits with a related word

buffalo or bison Searches for citations containing either term

Specifying a Phrase Quotation marks Indicate that you wish to search for the exact phrase enclosed

“reclamation project”

Searches for the exact phrase “reclamation project”

Sequencing Operations Parentheses Indicate that the operation should be performed before other operations in the search string

(buffalo or bison) and ranching

Searches first for citations containing either “buffalo” or “bison” before checking the resulting citations for “ranching”

Finding Variations Wild card symbols Depending on the database, symbols such as $, ?, or # can find variations of a word

ethic# ethic$

Searches for terms like ethics and ethical

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■ Engaging and Evaluating Sources Using reliable benchmarks, you should test all sources before you rely on them in your writing. After all, credible sources help your own credibility; sources that aren’t credible destroy it. The benchmarks on the next four pages will help you test your sources’ usefulness and reliability.

Engage your sources. Engaged reading is the opposite of passive reading—treating all sources equally, swallowing whole what’s in the material, or looking only for information that supports your opinion. Full engagement involves these practices:

Test each source to see if it’s worth reading. When reviewing source citations and generating a working bibliography, study titles, descriptions, lengths, and publication dates, asking these questions:

■ How closely related to my topic is this source? ■ Is this source too basic, overly complex, or just right? ■ What could this source add to my overall balance of sources?

If you were writing about the International Space Station, for example, you might find a ten-page article in Scientific American more valuable and insightful than a brief news article on a specific event onboard or a Star Trek fan’s blog on the topic.

Skim sources before reading in-depth. Consider marking key pages or passages with sticky notes, tabs, or a digital bookmark.

■ Review the author biography, preface, and/or introduction to discover the perspective, approach, scope, and research methods.

■ Using your keywords, review any outline, abstract, table of contents, index, or home page to get a sense of coverage.

Read with an open but not an empty mind. Carry on a dialogue with the source, asking questions like “Why?” and “So what?”

■ Note the purpose and audience. Was the piece written to inform or persuade? Is it aimed at the public, specialists, supporters, or opponents?

■ Read to understand the source: What’s clear and what’s confusing? ■ Relate the source to your research question: How does the source affirm or

challenge your ideas? Synthesize what you read with what you know. ■ Record your reactions to it—what it makes you think, feel, believe. ■ Consider how you might use this source in your writing—key facts, important

ideas, opposing perspectives, or examples. ■ Check footnotes, references, appendices, and links for further leads.

InSIght: Don’t reject a source simply because it disagrees with your perspective. Good research engages rather than ignores opposing points of view.

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Rate source reliability and depth. You should judge each source on its own merit. Generally, however, types of sources can be rated for depth and reliability, as shown in the table below, based on their authorship, length, topic treatment, documentation, publication method, review process, distance from primary sources, allegiances, stability, and so on. Use the table to

1. Target sources that fit your project’s goals, 2. Assess the approximate quality of the sources you’re gathering, and 3. Build a strong bibliography that readers will respect.

Scholarly Books and Articles: largely based on careful research; written by experts for experts; address topics in depth; involve peer review and careful editing; offer stable discussion of topic

Trade Books and Journal Articles: largely based on careful research; written by experts for educated general audience. Sample periodicals: The Atlantic, Scientific American, Nature, Orion

Government Resources: books, reports, webpages, guides, statistics developed by experts at government agencies; provided as service to citizens; relatively objective. Sample source : Statistical Abstract of the United States

Reviewed Official Online Documents: Internet resources posted by legitimate institutions—colleges and universities, research institutes, service organizations; although offering a particular perspective, sources tend to be balanced

Reference Works and Textbooks: provide general and specialized information; carefully researched, reviewed, and edited; lack depth for focused research (e.g., general encyclopedia entry)

News and Topical Stories from Quality Sources: provide current affairs coverage (print and online), introduction-level articles of interest to general public; may lack depth and length. Sample sources: the Washington Post, the New York Times; Time, Psychology Today; NPR’s All Things Considered

Popular Magazine Stories: short, introductory articles often distant from primary sources and without documentation; heavy advertising. Sample sources: Glamour, Seventeen, Reader’s Digest

Business and Nonprofit Publications: pamphlets, reports, news releases, brochures, manuals; range from informative to sales-focused

List Server Discussions, Usenet Postings, Blog Articles, Talk Radio Discussions: highly open, fluid, undocumented, untested exchanges and publications; unstable resource

Unregulated Web Material: personal sites, joke sites, chat rooms, special- interest sites, advertising and junk e-mail (spam); no review process, little accountability, biased presentation

Tabloid Articles (print and web): contain exaggerated and untrue stories written to titillate and exploit. Sample source : the National Enquirer

Deep, Reliable, Credible Sources

Shallow, Unreliable,

Not Credible Sources

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Web Link: Beware especially of masquerade sites—those that appear to be legitimate but are joke sites or, worse, propaganda lures. Check, for example, www.dhmo.org.

Evaluate print and online sources. As you work with a source, you need to test its reliability. The benchmarks that follow apply to both print and online sources; note, however, the additional tests offered for web sources. For more on evaluating material on the web, see pages 468–471.

Credible author An expert is an authority—someone who has mastered a subject area. Is the author an expert on this topic? What are her or his credentials, and can you confirm them? For example, an automotive engineer could be an expert on hydrogen fuel-cell technology, whereas a celebrity in a commercial would not.

Web test: Is an author indicated? If so, are the author’s credentials noted and contact information offered (for example, an e-mail address)?

Reliable publication Has the source been published by a scholarly press, a peer- reviewed professional journal, a quality trade-book publisher, or a trusted news source? Did you find this resource through a reliable search tool (for example, a library catalog or database)?

Web test: Which individual or group posted this page? Is the site rated by a subject directory or library organization? How stable is the site—has it been around for a while and does material remain available, or is the site “fly-by-night”? Check the site’s home page, and read “About Us” pages and mission statements, looking for evidence of the organization’s perspective, history, and trustworthiness.

Unbiased discussion While all sources come from a specific perspective and represent specific commitments, a biased source may be pushing an agenda in an unfair, unbalanced, incomplete manner. Watch for bias toward a certain region, country, political party, industry, gender, race, ethnic group, or religion. Be alert to connections among authors, financial backers, and the points of view shared. For example, if an author has functioned as a consultant to or a lobbyist for a particular industry or group (oil, animal rights), his or her allegiances may lead to a biased presentation of an issue.

Web test: Is the online document one-sided? Is the site nonprofit (.org), government (.gov), commercial (.com), educational (.edu), business (.biz), informational (.info), network-related (.net), or military (.mil)? Is the site U.S. or international? Is this organization pushing a cause, product, service, or belief? How do advertising or special interests affect the site? You might suspect, for example, the scientific claims of a site sponsored by a pro-smoking organization.

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Current information A five-year-old book on computers may be outdated, but a forty- year-old book on Abraham Lincoln could still be the best source. Given what you need, is this source’s discussion up-to-date?

Web test: When was the material originally posted and last updated? Are links live or dead?

Accurate information Bad research design, poor reporting, and sloppy documentation can lead to inaccurate information. Check the source for factual errors, statistical flaws, and conclusions that don’t add up.

Web test: Is the site information-rich or -poor—filled with helpful, factual materials or fluffy with thin, unsubstantiated opinions? Can you trace and confirm sources by following links or conducting your own search?

Full, logical support Is the discussion of the topic reasonable, balanced, and complete? Are claims backed up with quality evidence? Does the source avoid faulty assumptions, twisted statistical analysis, logical fallacies, and unfair persuasion tactics? (See pages 257–260, for help.)

Web test: Does the webpage offer well-supported claims and helpful links to additional information?

Quality writing and design Is the source well written? Is it free of sarcasm, derogatory terms, clichés, catch phrases, mindless slogans, grammar slips, and spelling errors? Generally, poor writing correlates with sloppy thinking.

Web test: Are words neutral (“conservative perspective”) or emotionally charged (“fascist agenda”)? Are pages well designed—with clear rather than flashy, distracting multimedia elements? Is the site easy to navigate?

Positive relationship with other sources Does the source disagree with other sources? If yes, is the disagreement about the facts themselves or about how to interpret the facts? Which source seems more credible?

Web test: Is the site’s information logically consistent with print sources? Do other reputable sites offer links to this site?

InSIght: Engage and evaluate visual resources as thoroughly as verbal materials. For example, ask yourself what tables, graphs, and photos really “say”:

■ Is the graphic informative or merely decorative? ■ Does the graphic create a valid or manipulative central idea? For example, does the

image seek to bypass logic by appealing to sexual impulses or to crude stereotypes? ■ What does the graphic include and exclude in terms of information? ■ Is the graphic well designed and easy to understand, or is it cluttered

and distorted? ■ Is a reliable source provided?

For more instruction on critical viewing, see pages 12–13.

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■ Creating a Working Bibliography A working bibliography lists sources you have used and intend to use. It helps you track your research, develop your final bibliography, and avoid plagiarism. Here’s what to do:

Choose an orderly method. Select an efficient approach for your project:

■ Paper note cards: Use 3✕5 inch cards, and record one source per card. ■ Paper notebook: Use a small, spiral-bound book to record sources. ■ Computer program: Record source information electronically, either by capturing

citation details from online searches or by recording bibliographic information using word-processing software or research software such as TakeNote, EndNote Plus, or Bookends Pro.

Including Identifying Information for Sources Start by giving each source a code number or letter: Doing so will help you when drafting and documenting your paper. Then include specific details for each kind of source listed below, shown on the facing page.

A. Books: author, title and subtitle, publication details (place, publisher, date) B. Periodicals: author, article title, journal name, publication information

(volume, number, date), page numbers

C. Online sources: author (if available), document title, site sponsor, database name, publication or posting date, access date, other publication information, URL

D. Primary or field research: date conducted, name and/or descriptive title of person interviewed, place observed, survey conducted, document analyzed

Adding Locating Information Because you may need to retrace your research footsteps, include details about your research path:

A. Books: Include the Library of Congress or Dewey call number. B. Articles: Note where and how you accessed them (stacks, current periodicals,

microfilm, database).

C. Webpages: Record the complete URL, not just the broader site address. D. Field research: Include a telephone number or an e-mail address.

INSIGHT: Consider recording bibliographic details in the format of the documentation system you are using—MLA (pages 491–528) or APA (pages 529–558), for example. Doing so now will save time later. In addition, some research software allows you to record bibliographic information and then format it according to a specific system.

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Annotating the Source Add a note about the source’s content, focus, reliability, and usefulness.

Sample Working Bibliography Entries

#2 Howells, Coral Ann. Alice Munro. Contemporary World Writers. Manchester and New York: Manchester UP, 1998.

PS 8576.U57 Z7 1998

Book provides good introduction to Alice Munro’s fiction, chapters arranged by Munro’s works; contains intro, conclusion, and bibliography; 1998 date means author doesn’t cover Munro’s recent fiction

#5 Valdes, Marcela. “Some Stories Have to Be Told by Me: A Literary History of Alice Munro.” Virginia Quarterly Review 82.3 (Summer 2006): 82-90.

EBSCOhost Academic Search Premier http://web.ebscohost.com

Article offers good introduction to Munro’s life, her roots in Ontario, her writing career, and the key features of her stories

#3 “Alice Munro.” Athabasca University Centre for Language and Literature: Canadian Writers. Updated 31 January 2011. Accessed 17 April 2011.

http://www.athabascau.ca/writers/munro.html site offers good introduction to Munro’s writing, along with links to bibliography and other resources

#4 Thacker, Robert. E-Mail interview. 7 March 2011.

rthacker@mdu.edu

author of critical biography on Munro, Alice Munro: Writing Her Lives, offered really helpful insights into her creative process, especially useful for story “Carried Away”

A. Book Source Note:

B. Periodical Source Note

C. Internet Source Note:

D. Interview Source Note:

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■ Developing a Note-Taking System Accurate, thoughtful notes create a foundation for your research writing. The trick is to practice some sensible strategies and choose an efficient method.

Develop note-taking strategies. What are you trying to do when you take notes on sources? What you are not doing is (a) collecting quotations to plunk in your project, (b) piling isolated grains of data into a large stack of disconnected facts, or (c) intensively reading and taking notes on every source you find. Instead, use these strategies:

Take good notes on graphics in sources—tables, line graphs, photo graphs, maps, and so on. Such graphics are typically packed with information and powerfully convey ideas. (See “Critical Thinking Through Viewing,” pages 12–17.)

INSIGHT: Different disciplines use different note-taking practices. In your major, learn these practices through courses that introduce you to the subject matter. Here are two examples:

■ In literature studies, students conduct literary analyses by annotating print texts. Students may also take notes through keyword searches of e-books (for example, a Shakespeare play) and reviews of literary criticism.

■ In environmental studies, students conduct research by (a) taking notes on published research to develop literature reviews, and (b) using a standard field notebook to collect data, make drawings, and ref lect on results.

Be selective. Guided by your research questions and working thesis, focus on sources that are central to your project. From these sources, record information clearly related to your limited topic, but also take notes on what surprises or puzzles you. Be selective, avoiding notes that are either too meager or too extensive. Suppose, for example, that you were writing a paper on the engineering problems facing the International Space Station. If you were reading an article on the history and the future of this facility, you might take careful notes on material describing the station’s technical details, but not on astronauts’ biographies.

Develop accurate, complete records. Your notes should . . . ■ Accurately summarize, paraphrase, and quote sources (pages 436–438). ■ Clearly show where you got your information. ■ Cover all the research you’ve done—primary research (e.g., interviews,

observations), books and periodical articles, and online sources.

Engage your sources. Evaluate what you are reading and develop your own responses. (See pages 4–11.) For example, with an article about the International Space Station, you might test the author’s biases, credentials, and logic; and you might respond with knowledge you have gained about other space endeavors.

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Note-Taking Systems A good note-taking system should help you do the following:

■ Avoid unintentional plagiarism by developing accurate records, distinguishing among sources, and separating source material from your own ideas.

■ Work efficiently at gathering what you need for the project. ■ Work f lexibly with a wide range of resources—primary and secondary, print and

electronic, verbal and visual. ■ Engage sources through creative and critical ref lection. ■ Record summaries, paraphrases, and quotations correctly. ■ Be accurate and complete so that you need not reread sources. ■ Efficiently develop your paper’s outline and first draft.

Four note-taking systems are outlined on the pages that follow. Choose the system that works best for your project, or combine elements to develop your own.

System 1: Paper or electronic note cards. Using paper note cards is the traditional method of note taking; however, note-taking software is now available with most word-processing programs and special programs like TakeNote, EndNote Plus, and Bookends Pro. Here’s how a note-card system works:

1. Establish one set of cards (3 × 5 inches, if paper) for your bibliography.

2. On a second set of cards (4 × 6 inches, if paper), take notes on sources: ■ Record one point from one source per card. ■ Clarify the source: List the author’s last name, a shortened title, or a code

from the matching bibliography card. Include a page number. ■ Provide a topic or heading: Called a slug, the topic helps you categorize and

order information. ■ Label the note as a summary, paraphrase, or quotation of the original. ■ Distinguish between the source’s information and your own thoughts.

Upside: Note cards are highly systematic, helping you categorize material and organize it for an outline and a first draft.

Downside: The method can be initially tedious and time-consuming.

1 PROBLEMS WITH INTERNAL-COMBUSTION CARS

“In one year, the average gas-powered car produces five tons of carbon dioxide, which as it slowly builds up in the atmosphere causes global warming.” (p. 43)

-helpful fact about the extent of pollution caused by the traditional i-c engine

-how does this number compare with what a hybrid produces?

Slug Quotation

Page Number

Comments

Source

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System 2: Copy (or save) and annotate. The copy-and-annotate method involves working with photocopies, print versions, or digital texts of sources:

System 3: The computer notebook or research log. The computer notebook or research log method involves taking notes on a computer or on sheets of paper. Here’s how it works:

1. Selectively photocopy, print, and/or save important sources. Copy carefully, making sure you have full pages, including the page numbers.

2. As needed, add identifying information on the copy—author, publication details, and date. Each page should be easy to identify and trace. When working with books, simply copy the title and copyright pages and keep them with the rest of your notes.

3. As you read, mark up the copy and highlight key statements. In the margins or digital file, record your ideas:

■ Ask questions. Insert a “?” in the margin, or write out the question. ■ Make connections. Draw arrows to link ideas, or make notes like “see

page 36.” ■ Add asides. Record what you think and feel while reading. ■ Define terms. Note important words that you need to understand. ■ Create a marginal index. Write keywords to identify themes and main parts.

1. Establish a central location for your notes—a notebook, a file folder, a binder, or an electronic folder.

2. Take notes one source at a time, making sure to identify the source fully. Number your note pages.

3. Using your initials or some other symbol, distinguish your own thoughts from source material.

4. Use codes in your notes to identify which information in the notes relates to which topic in your outline. Then, under each topic in the outline, write the page number in your notes where that information is recorded. With a notebook or log, you may be able to rearrange your notes into an outline by using copy and paste— but don’t lose source information in the process!

Upside: Copying, printing, and/or saving helps you record sources accurately; annotating encourages careful reading and thinking.

Downside: Organizing material for drafting is inconvenient; when done poorly, annotating and highlighting involve skimming, not critical thinking.

Upside: Taking notes feels natural without being overly systematic. Downside: Outlining and drafting may require time-consuming paper shuffling.

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System 4: The double-entry notebook. The double-entry notebook involves parallel note taking—notes from sources beside your own brainstorming, reaction, and reflection. Using a notebook or the columns feature of your word-processing program, do the following:

1. Divide pages in half vertically.

2. In the left column, record bibliographic information and take notes on sources.

3. In the right column, write your responses. Think about what the source is saying, why the point is important, whether you agree with it, and how the point relates to other ideas and other sources.

Upside: This method creates accurate source records while encouraging thoughtful responses; also, it can be done on a computer.

Downside: Organizing material for drafting may be a challenge.

Cudworth, Erika. Environment and Society. Routledge Introductions to Environment Series. London and New York: Routledge, 2003.

Ch. 6 “Society, ‘Culture’ and ‘Nature’— Human Relations with Animals”

chapter looks at how social scientists have understood historically the relationship between people and animals (158)

the word animal is itself a problem when we remember that people too are animals but the distinction is often sharply made by people themselves (159)

“In everyday life, people interact with animals continually.” (159) –author gives many common examples

I’ve actually had a fair bit of personal experience with animals—the horses, ducks, dogs, and cats on our hobby farm. Will this chapter make trouble for my thinking?

Yes, what really are the connections and differences between people and animals? Is it a different level of intelligence? Is there something more basic or fundamental? Are we afraid to see ourselves as animals, as creatures?

Many examples—pets, food, TV programs, zoos—apply to me. Hadn’t thought about how much my life is integrated with animal life! What does that integration look like? What does it mean for me, for the animals?

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■ Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Quoting Source Material As you work with sources, you must decide what to put in your notes and how to record it—as a summary, a paraphrase, or a quotation. Use these guidelines:

■ How relevant is the passage to your research question or working thesis? ■ How strong and important is the information offered? ■ How unique or memorable is the thinking or phrasing?

The more relevant, the stronger, and the more memorable the material is, the more likely you should note it.

The passage below comes from an article on GM’s development of fuel-cell technology. Review the passage; study how the researcher summarizes, paraphrases, and quotes from the source; and then practice these same strategies as you take notes on sources.

When Karl Benz rolled his Patent Motorcar out of the barn in 1886, he literally set the wheels of change in motion. The advent of the automobile led to dramatic alterations in people’s way of life as well as the global economy—transformations that no one expected at the time. The ever-increasing availability of economical personal transportation remade the world into a more accessible place while spawning a complex industrial infrastructure that shaped modern society.

Now another revolution could be sparked by automotive technology: one fueled by hydrogen rather than petroleum. Fuel cells—which cleave hydrogen atoms into protons and electrons that drive electric motors while emitting nothing worse than water vapor—could make the automobile much more environmentally friendly. Not only could cars become cleaner, they could also become safer, more comfortable, more personalized—and even perhaps less expensive. Further, these fuel-cell vehicles could be instrumental in motivating a shift toward a “greener” energy economy based on hydrogen. As that occurs, energy use and production could change significantly. Thus, hydrogen fuel-cell cars and trucks could help ensure a future in which personal mobility—the freedom to travel independently—could be sustained indefinitely, without compromising the environment or depleting the earth’s natural resources.

A confluence of factors makes the big change seem increasingly likely. For one, the petroleum-fueled internal-combustion engine (ICE), as highly refined, reliable and economical as it is, is finally reaching its limits. Despite steady improvements, today’s ICE vehicles are only 20 to 25 percent efficient in converting the energy content of fuels into drive-wheel power. And although the U.S. auto industry has cut exhaust emissions substantially since the unregulated 1960s—hydrocarbons dropped by 99 percent, carbon monoxide by 96 percent and nitrogen oxides by 95 percent—the continued production of carbon dioxide causes concern because of its potential to change the planet’s climate.

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Summarize useful passages. Summarizing condenses in your own words the main points in a passage. Summarize when the source provides relevant ideas and information on your topic.

1. Reread the passage, jotting down a few key words. 2. State the main point in your own words. Add key supporting points, leaving out

examples, details, and long explanations. Be objective: Don’t mix your reactions with the summary.

3. Check your summary against the original, making sure that you use quotation marks around any exact phrases you borrow.

Paraphrase key passages. Paraphrasing puts a whole passage in your own words. Paraphrase passages that present important points, explanations, or arguments but that don’t contain memorable or straightforward wording. Follow these steps:

1. Quickly review the passage to get a sense of the whole, and then go through the passage carefully, sentence by sentence.

■ State the ideas in your own words, defining words as needed. ■ If necessary, edit for clarity, but don’t change the meaning. ■ If you borrow phrases directly, put them in quotation marks.

2. Check your paraphrase against the original for accurate tone and meaning.

Sample Summary:

While the introduction of the car in the late nineteenth century has led to dramatic changes in society and world economics, another dramatic change is now taking place in the shift from gas engines to hydrogen technologies. Fuel cells may make the car “greener,” and perhaps even safer, cheaper, and more comfortable. These automotive changes will affect the energy industry by making it more environmentally friendly; as a result, people will continue to enjoy mobility while transportation moves to renewable energy. One factor leading to this technological shift is that the internal-combustion engine has reached the limits of its efficiency, potential, and development—while remaining problematic with respect to emissions, climate change, and health.

INSIGHT: Whenever possible, include a page number, paragraph number, or other locating detail with your paraphrase, summary, or quotation. Such identification at this stage is crucial to avoiding plagiarism down the road (see pages 474–479).

From Burns, L. D., McCormick, J. B., and Borroni-Bird, C. E. “Vehicle of Change.” Scientific American 287:4 (October 2002): 10 pp.

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Sample Paraphrase of the Second Paragraph in the Passage:

Sample Quotations:

Automobile technology may lead to another radical economic and social change through the shift from gasoline to hydrogen fuel. By breaking hydrogen into protons and electrons so that the electrons run an electric motor with only the by-product of water vapor, fuel cells could make the car a “green” machine. But this technology could also increase the automobile’s safety, comfort, personal tailoring, and affordability. Moreover, this shift to fuel-cell engines in automobiles could lead to drastic, environmentally friendly changes in the broader energy industry, one that will be now tied to hydrogen rather than fossil fuels. The result from this shift will be radical changes in the way we use and produce energy. In other words, the shift to hydrogen-powered vehicles could promise to maintain society’s valued mobility, while the clean technology would preserve the environment and its natural resources.

“[H]ydrogen fuel-cell cars and trucks could help ensure a future in which personal mobility . . . could be sustained indefinitely, without compromising the environment or depleting the earth’s natural resources.”

“[T]he petroleum-fueled internal-combustion engine (ICE), as highly refined, reliable and economical as it is, is finally reaching its limits.”

Quote crucial phrases, sentences, and passages. Quoting records statements or phrases in the original source word for word. Quote nuggets only—statements that are well phrased or authoritative: 1. Note the quotation’s context—how it fits in the author’s discussion. 2. Copy the passage word for word, enclosing it in quotation marks and checking

its accuracy. 3. If you omit words, note that omission with an ellipsis. If you change any

word for grammatical reasons, put changes in brackets. (See page 487).

INSIGHT: Whether you are summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting, aim to be true to the source by respecting the context and spirit of the original. Avoid shifting the focus or ripping material out of its context and forcing it into your own. For example, in the sample passage the authors discuss the limits of the internal-combustion engine. If you were to claim that these authors are arguing that the internal-combustion engine was an enormous engineering and environmental mistake, you would be twisting their comments to serve your own writing agenda.

For instruction on effectively integrating quotations, paraphrases, and summaries into your writing, see pages 484–487.fyi

Note: This sentence captures the authors’ main claim about the benefits and future of fuel-cell technology.

Note: This quotation offers a well-phrased statement about the essential problem.

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■ Avoiding Unintentional Plagiarism Careful note taking helps prevent unintentional plagiarism. Plagiarism—using source material without giving credit—is treated more fully elsewhere (pages 474–479); essentially, however, unintentional plagiarism happens when you accidentally use a source’s ideas, phrases, or information without documenting that material. At the planning stage of your project, you can prevent this problem from happening by adhering to principles of ethical research and following some practical guidelines.

Practice the principles of ethical research. Because of the nature of information and the many challenges of working with it, conducting ethical research can be very complex and involved. To start with, however, commit to these principles of ethical research:

■ Do the research and write the paper yourself. ■ Adhere to the research practices approved in your discipline. ■ Follow school- and discipline-related guidelines for working with people, resources,

and technology. ■ Avoid one-sided research that ignores or conceals opposition. ■ Present real, accurate data and results—not “fudged” or twisted facts. ■ Treat source material fairly in your writing.

Practices That Prevent Unintentional Plagiarism The principles of ethical research above find expression when you prevent unintentional plagiarism. Do so by following these practices:

■ Maintain an accurate working bibliography (pages 430–431). ■ When taking notes, distinguish source material from your own ref lection by

using quotation marks, codes, and/or separate columns or note cards. ■ When you draft your paper, transfer source material carefully by coding

material that you integrate into your discussion, using quotation marks, double-checking your typing, or using copy and paste to ensure accuracy.

■ Take time to do the project right—both research and writing. Avoid pulling an all-nighter during which you can’t properly work with sources.

Practices That Prevent Internet Plagiarism An especially thorny area related to unintentional plagiarism centers on the Internet. As with traditional print sources, Internet sources must be properly credited; in other words, web material cannot simply be transferred to your paper without acknowledgement. So treat web sources like print sources. And if you copy and paste digital material while taking notes and drafting, always track its origins with codes, abbreviations, or separate columns.

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Learning-Outcomes Checklist Use the checklist below to assess what you have learned about getting started on a research project.

I understand the rhetorical context of my research project.

I can effectively follow the research and writing process, including developing a workable research plan and clarifying my plan in a project proposal.

I can formulate main and secondary research questions, and can respond to the main question in the form of a working thesis or hypothesis.

I can effectively work with a broad range of resources, engage them through critical reading, and evaluate their strength and credibility.

I can effectively build a working bibliography and take notes systematically and accurately so as to avoid unintentional plagiarism.

I avoid plagiarism.

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following activities.

1. Write a research report about your major area of study. Discuss the types of knowledge the major explores and the professions to which it leads. Address the paper to students considering this major.

2. For a current research project, find and list fifteen to twenty available sources on your topic. Visit libraries to locate books, articles, and so forth. Use a search engine, directories, and other tools to locate sources on the web. Finally, list any interviews, observations, and surveys that you might do. Shape this list of resources into a working bibliography; then add a commentary to the bibliography in which you explain why you believe this to be good, balanced research for this project.

3. Test the reliability of one of your print sources and one of your Internet sources for a current research project. Refer to the questions on pages 428–429, and see if the two resources pass the test. Are both sources credible enough to strengthen your paper?

4. Choose a short article or a passage from one of your longer sources. Restate (paraphrase) what you have read using your own words. Put quotation marks around key words and phrases that you take directly from the text. Next, use the same materials to create a summary. Reduce what you just read to a few clear and important points using your own words.

5. Using what you have learned in this chapter, develop a research proposal that identifies a topic of interest to you, clarifies the value of the research, maps out research methods, and establishes a workable schedule.

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441

Visually Speaking

Today, conducting research is both easy and difficult. It’s easy because research technology is powerful and many research methods are available. It’s difficult because that technology and those methods provide access to so much information—the good, the bad, and the ugly.

How do you meet this challenge and conduct quality research? First, consider whether your project would benefit from primary research. When you engage in primary research, you gather information firsthand by observing sites, interviewing people, and analyzing documents. Second, learn how to use an expert resource—your college library. The library is your gateway to quality print and electronic materials.

Review the photograph above. What does this image suggest to you about library research? How does it relate to your own experiences of libraries?

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand primary and secondary sources.

▶ Plan and conduct primary research.

▶ Use the college library, research tools, and resources.

▶ Locate and work with quality reference works.

▶ Locate and work with quality print books.

▶ Locate and work with quality periodical articles.

Conducting Primary and Library Research

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■ Primary and Secondary Sources Information sources for your research project can be either primary or secondary. Depending on your assignment, you may be expected to use one or both kinds of sources.

Consider primary sources. A primary source is an original source, one that gives firsthand information on a topic. This source (such as a diary, a person, or an event) informs you directly about the topic, rather than through another person’s explanation or interpretation. The most common forms of primary research are observations, interviews, surveys, experiments, and analyses of original documents and artifacts.

Consider secondary sources. Secondary sources present secondhand information on your topic—information at least once removed from the original. This information has been compiled, summarized, analyzed, synthesized, interpreted, or evaluated by someone studying primary sources. Journal articles, encyclopedia entries, documentaries, and nonfiction books are typical examples of such secondary sources.

Example: Below are possible primary and secondary sources for a research project exploring hybrid car technology and its viability. Note: Whether a source is primary or secondary depends on what you are studying. For example, if you were studying U.S. attitudes toward hybrid cars (and not hybrid car technology itself), the newspaper editorial and TV roundtable would be primary sources.

INSIGHT: Some resources are tertiary—that is, thirdhand. They are essentially reports of reports of research and, therefore, are distant from the original information. Examples of tertiary sources would include some articles in popular magazines and entries in Wikipedia. Aside from giving you ideas for focusing your topic, tertiary sources should generally not be used in college research projects and should not appear in works-cited or references lists.

Primary Sources

E-mail interview with automotive engineer

Fuel-efficiency legislation

Visit and test-drive a car at a dealership

Published statistics about hybrid car sales

Secondary Sources

Journal article discussing the development of hybrid car technology

Newspaper editorial on fossil fuels

TV news roundtable discussion of hybrid car advantages and disadvantages

Promotional literature for a specific hybrid car

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Conduct primary research. You need to choose the method of primary research that best suits your project. For help, review the following descriptions:

■ Conducting Primary Research When published sources can’t give you the information that you need, consider conducting primary research. However, you must first weigh all its advantages and disadvantages.

Upside of Primary Research ■ It produces information precisely tailored to your research needs. ■ It gives you direct, hands-on access to your topic.

Downside of Primary Research ■ It can take a lot of time and many resources to complete. ■ It can require special skills, such as designing surveys and analyzing statistics

and original documents.

1. Surveys and questionnaires gather written responses you can review, tabulate, and analyze. These research tools pull together varied information— from simple facts to personal opinions and attitudes. See “Conduct surveys” on pages 444–445.

2. Interviews involve consulting two types of people. First, you can interview experts for their insights on your topic. Second, you can interview people whose direct experiences with the topic give you their personal insights. See “Conduct interviews,” page 448, and “Interview Report,” pages 325–332.

3. Observations, inspections, and field research require you to examine and analyze people, places, events, and so on. Whether you rely simply on your five senses or use scientific techniques, observing provides insights into the present state of your subject. For help with observation, field research, and writing reports based on this work, go to www.thecollegewriter.com/4e.

4. Experiments test hypotheses—predictions about why things do what they do—to arrive at conclusions that can be accepted and acted upon. Such testing often explores cause/effect relationships. See “Lab, Experiment, and Field Reports” on pages 333–346.

5. Analysis of documents and artifacts involves studying original reports, statistics, legislation, literature, artwork, and historical records. Such analysis provides unique, close-up interpretations of your topic. See “Analyze texts, documents, records, and artifacts” on pages 446–447, as well as “Writing About Literature and the Arts” on pages 349–364.

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Conduct surveys. One source of primary information that you can use for research projects is a survey or questionnaire. Surveys can collect facts and opinions from a wide range of people about virtually any topic. To get valid information, follow these guidelines:

1. Find a focus. ■ Limit the purpose of your survey. ■ Target a specific audience.

2. Ask clear questions. ■ Phrase questions so they can be easily understood. ■ Use words that are objective (not biased or slanted).

3. Match your questions to your purpose. ■ Closed questions give respondents easy-answer options, and the answers are

easy to tabulate. Closed questions can provide two choices (yes or no, true or false), multiple choices, a rating scale (poor 1 2 3 excellent), or a blank to fill.

■ Open-ended questions bring in a wide variety of responses and more complex information, but they take time to complete, and the answers can be difficult to summarize.

4. Organize your survey so that it’s easy to complete. ■ In the introduction, state who you are and why you need the information.

Explain how to complete the survey and when and where to return it. ■ Guide readers by providing numbers, instructions, and headings. ■ Begin with basic questions and end with any complex, open-ended questions

that are necessary. Move in a logical order from one topic to the next.

5. Test your survey before using it. ■ Ask a friend or classmate to read your survey and help you revise it, if

necessary, before printing it. ■ Try out your survey with a small test group.

6. Conduct your survey. ■ Distribute the survey to a clearly defined group that won’t prejudice the

sampling (random or cross section). ■ Get responses from a good sample of your target group (10 percent if at

all possible). ■ Tabulate responses carefully and objectively.

Note: To develop statistically valid results, you may need expert help. Check with your instructor.

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Sample Survey

Confidential Survey

My name is Cho Lang, and I’m conducting research about the use of training

supplements. I’d like to hear from you, Alfred University’s athletes. Please answer

the questions below by circling or writing out your responses. Return your survey

to me, care of the Dept. of Psychology, through campus mail by Friday, April 5.

Your responses will remain confidential.

1. Circle your gender. Male Female

2. Circle your year.

Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior

3. List the sports that you play.

4. Are you presently using a training supplement?

Yes No

Note: If you circled “no,” you may turn in your survey at this point.

5. Describe your supplement use (type, amount, and frequency).

6. Who supervises your use of this training supplement?

Coach Trainer Self Others

7. How long have you used it?

Less than 1 month 1–12 months 12+ months

8. How many pounds have you gained while using this supplement?

9. How much has your athletic performance improved?

None 1 2 3 4 5 Greatly

10. Circle any side effects you’ve experienced.

Dehydration Nausea Diarrhea

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The introduction includes the essential information about the survey.

The survey begins with clear, basic questions.

The survey asks an open-ended question.

The survey covers the topic thoroughly.

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Analyze texts, documents, records, and artifacts. An original document or record is one that relates directly to the event, issue, object, or phenomenon you are researching. Examining original documents and artifacts can involve studying letters, e-mail exchanges, case notes, literary texts, sales records, legislation, and material objects such as tools, sculptures, buildings, and tombs. As you analyze such documents and records, you examine evidence in an effort to understand a topic, arrive at a coherent conclusion about it, and support that judgment. How do you work with such diverse documents, records, and artifacts? Here are some guidelines:

Choose evidence close to your topic. Which texts, documents, records, and artifacts originated from or grew out of the topic you are researching? The closer to the topic, the more primary the source. Select materials that are directly related to your research questions and/or working thesis.

Example: If you were studying English labor riots of the 1830s, you could investigate these primary sources:

■ To understand what rioters were demanding, copies of speeches given at demonstrations

■ To know who the rioters were, names from police reports or union membership lists

■ To learn the political response to the riots, political speeches or legislation

■ To get at the attitudes of people from that time, newspaper reports, works of art, or novels from the period

■ To find people’s personal stories and private opinions related to the riots, personal letters, diaries, family albums, gravestones, and funeral eulogies

Example: To study the legislative background behind the development of cleaner cars, such as the hybrid-fuel vehicle, you could access various documents on the Clean Air Act of 1990 (for example, The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act, an EPA publication). As you study this legislation, you could frame your reading with these additional questions:

■ What are the requirements of the Clean Air Act? ■ Specifically, how do those requirements affect automotive technology? ■ Which private and public research projects will likely inf luence these

requirements? ■ Are schedules for change or deadlines written into the Clean Air Act?

Frame your examination with questions. To make sense of the text, document, record, or artifact, understand what you are looking for and why. List the secondary questions that you want to answer in relation to the main question behind your research project.

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Example: If you were examining Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in a history or women’s studies course, you would consider the following:

■ External Context: who Mary Wollstonecraft was; when and why she wrote A Vindication and under what conditions; for whom she wrote it and their response; the type of document it is

■ Internal Context: Wollstonecraft’s essential argument and evidence; the nature of her views, their relationship to her times, and their relevance today

Example: A study of the Clean Air Act might lead you to a variety of conclusions regarding how environmental legislation relates to the development of hybrid technology—for example, that the United States must produce cleaner cars if it hopes to gain improved air quality.

■ Political science: What role did political theories, structures, and processes play in the riots—both in causing and in responding to them?

■ Art: How were the concerns of the rioters embodied in the new “realist” style of the mid-1800s? Did artists sympathize with and address an alienated working- class audience? How did art comment on the social structures of the time?

■ Sociology: What type and quality of education did most workers have in the 1830s? How did that education affect their economic status and employment opportunities? Did issues related to the riots prompt changes in the English educational system? What changes and why?

Put the document or artifact in context. So that the material takes on meaning, clarify its external and internal natures. First, consider its external context—the five W’s and H: What exactly is it? Who made it, when, where, why, and how? Second, consider its internal nature—what the document means, based on what it can and cannot show you: What does the language mean or refer to? What is the document’s structure? What are the artifact’s composition and style?

Draw coherent conclusions about meaning. Make sense of the source in relation to your research questions. What connections does the source reveal? What important changes or developments? What cause/effect relationships? What themes?

InSIght: Studying primary documents and artifacts is central to many disciplines— history, literature, theology, philosophy, political studies, and archaeology, for example. Good analysis depends on asking research questions appropriate for the discipline. With the English labor riots of the 1830s again as an example, here’s what three disciplines might ask:

With these examples in mind, consider your own major: What questions would this discipline ask of the English labor riots, of Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, or of the Clean Air Act of 1990?

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Conduct interviews. The purpose of an interview is simple: To get information, you talk with someone who has significant experience or someone who is an expert on your topic. Use the guidelines below whenever you conduct an interview. (See also pages 325–332.)

1. Before the interview, do your homework about the topic and the person you are planning to interview. ■ Arrange the interview in a thoughtful way. Explain to the interviewee your purpose

and the topics to be covered. ■ Think about the specific ideas you want to cover in the interview and write

questions for each. Addressing the 5 W’s and H (Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How?) is important for good coverage.

■ Organize your questions in a logical order so the interview moves smoothly from one subject to the next.

■ Write the questions on the left side of a page. Leave room for quotations, information, and impressions on the right side.

2. During the interview, try to relax so that your conversation is natural and sincere. ■ Provide some background information about yourself,

your project, and your plans for using the interview information.

■ Use recording equipment only with the interviewee’s permission.

■ Jot down key facts and quotations. ■ Listen actively. Show that you’re listening through

your body language—eye contact, nods, smiles. Pay attention not only to what the person says, but also to how he or she says it.

■ Be f lexible. If the person looks puzzled by a question, rephrase it. If the discussion gets off track, redirect it. Based on the interviewee’s responses, ask follow-up questions, and don’t limit yourself to your planned questions only.

3. After the interview, do the appropriate follow-up work. ■ As soon as possible, review your notes. Fill in responses you remember but couldn’t

record at the time. ■ Thank the interviewee with a note, an e-mail, or a phone call. ■ If necessary, ask the interviewee to check whether your information and quotations

are accurate. ■ Offer to send the interviewee a copy of your writing.

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Based on the interviewee’s responses, ask follow-up questions, and don’t limit yourself to your planned questions only.

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■ Using the Library The library door is your gateway to information. Inside, the college library holds a wide range of research resources, from books to periodicals, from reference librarians to electronic databases.

Become familiar with the library. To improve your ability to succeed at all your research assignments, become familiar with your college library system. Take advantage of tours and orientation sessions to learn its physical layout, resources, and services. Check your library’s website for policies, tutorials, and research tools. The college library offers a variety of resources for your research projects.

Librarians: Librarians are information experts: ■ Librarians manage the library’s materials and guide you to resources. ■ They help you perform online searches.

Collections: The library collects and houses a variety of materials: ■ Books and electronic materials—CD-ROMs, CDs, and DVDs ■ Periodicals—journals, magazines, and newspapers (print or microform) ■ Reference materials—directories, indexes, handbooks, encyclopedias, and

almanacs ■ Special collections—government publications, historical documents, and

original artifacts

Research tools: The library contains many tools that direct you to materials: ■ The online catalog allows you to search everything in the library. ■ Print indexes and subscription databases (Lexis-Nexis, EBSCOhost, ProQuest

Direct) point you to abstracts and full-text articles. ■ Internet access connects you with other library catalogs and online references.

Special services: Special services may also help you to complete research: ■ Interlibrary loan allows you to obtain books and articles not available in your

library. ■ “Hold” allows you to request a book that is currently signed out. ■ “Reserve” materials give you access to materials recommended by your

instructors or heavily in demand. ■ The reference desk can help you find information quickly, point you to the right

resources, and help you with a search. ■ Photocopiers, CD burners, scanners, and presentation software help you

perform and share your research.

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Search the catalog. Library materials are catalogued so they are easy to find. In most college libraries, books, videos, and other holdings are catalogued in an electronic database. To find material, use book titles, author names, and related keyword searching. (See also pages 424–425.)

Keyword Browse Exact

1. Enter the word(s) you want to find. Keyword returns records containing the word(s) entered. Browse returns catalog headings beginning with the first word

entered. exact returns records that exactly match the word(s) entered. 2. Choose a target search field. Search everything targets all indexed fields within a record. All other choices target specified fields within a record.

Search Everything Author Title Subject Series

Periodical Title

When you find a citation for a book or other resource, the result will provide some or all of the following information. Use that information to determine whether the resource is worth exploring further and to figure out other avenues of research. Note that a number of items appearing in blue, underlined type provide links to related books and other resources in the catalog.

Cudworth, Erika, 1966–

Title: Environment and Society

Publisher: London; New York: Routledge, 2003.

Physical descript.: xii, 232 p.: ill.; 24 cm.

Subjects: Human ecology [65 rec.] Nature—Effect of human being on [15 rec.] Environmental protection [25 rec.]

Call number: GF 41 .C83 2003

Location: Available—on shelf

Author or editor’s name

Title and subtitle

Publisher and copyright date

Descriptive information

Subject headings (crucial list of topics)

Call number

Location

Sample Electronic Catalog

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Locating Resources by Call Numbers Library of Congress (LC) call numbers combine letters and numbers to specify a resource’s broad subject area, topic, and authorship or title. Finding a book, DVD, or other item involves combining both the alphabetical and the numerical order. Here is a sample call number for Arctic Refuge: A Vanishing Wilderness?:

VIdeo Qh84.1.a72 1990 subject area (Qh) topic number (84) subtopic number (1) cutter number (a72)

To find this resource in the library, first note the tab VIDEO. Although not part of the call number, this locator may send you to a specific area of the library. Once there, follow the parts of the call number one at a time:

1. Find the library section on natural history containing videos with the “QH” designation.

2. Follow the numbers until you reach “84.” 3. Within the “84” items, find those with the subtopic “1.” 4. Use the cutter “A72” to locate the resource alphabetically with “A,” and

numerically with “72.”

Note: In the LC system, pay careful attention to the arrangement of subject area letters, topic numbers, and subtopic numbers: Q98 comes before QH84; QH84 before QH8245; QH84.A72 before QH84.1.A72.

Classification Systems The LC classification system combines letters and numbers. The Dewey decimal system, which is used in some libraries, uses numbers only. Here is a list of the subject classes for both the LC and Dewey systems.

The Library of Congress and Dewey Decimal Systems

LC Category Dewey Decimal A General Works 000–999 B Philosophy 100–199 Psychology 150–159 Religion 200–299 C History: Auxiliary Sciences 910–929 D History: General and

Old World 930–999 E–F History: American 970–979 G Geography 910–919 Anthropology 571–573 Recreation 700–799 H Social Sciences 300–399 J Political Science 320–329

LC Category Dewey Decimal K Law 340–349 L Education 370–379 M Music 780–789 N Fine Arts 700–799 P Language 800–899 Literature 400–499 Q Science 500–599 R Medicine 610–619 S Agriculture 630–639 T Technology 600–699 U Military Science 355–359, 623 V Naval Science 359, 623 Z Bibliography and 010–0199 Library Science 020–029

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■ Using Books in Research Your college library contains a whole range of books for you to use, from scholarly studies and reference works to trade books and biographies. Unfortunately, for most research projects you simply don’t have time to read an entire book, and rarely do the entire contents relate to your topic. Instead, use the strategy outlined below to refine your research effort.

Approach the book systematically. 1. Check out front and back information.

The title and copyright pages give the book’s full title and subtitle; the author’s name; and publication information, including publication date and Library of Congress subject headings. The back may contain a note on the author’s credentials and other publications.

2. Scan the table of contents. Examine the contents page to see what the book covers and how it is organized. Ask yourself which chapters are relevant to your project.

3. Using key words, search the index. Check the index for coverage and page locations of the topics most closely related to your project. Are there plenty of pages, or just a few? Are these pages concentrated or scattered throughout the book?

4. Skim the preface, foreword, or introduction. Skimming the opening materials will often indicate the book’s perspective, explain its origin, and preview its contents.

5. Check appendices, glossaries, or bibliographies. These special sections may be a good source of tables, graphics, definitions, statistics, and clues for further research.

6. Carefully read appropriate chapters and sections. Think through the material you’ve read and take good notes. (See pages 432–435.) Follow references to authors and other works to do further research on the topic. Study footnotes and endnotes for insights and leads.

Consider these options for working productively with books: ■ When you find a helpful book, browse nearby shelves for more books. ■ To confirm a book’s quality, check the Internet, a periodical database, or

Book Review Digest for a review. ■ If your library subscribes to an e-book service such as NetLibrary, you have

access to thousands of books in electronic form. You can conduct electronic searches, browse or check out promising books, and read them online.

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Check reference works that supply information.

Check reference works that are research tools.

Encyclopedias supply facts and overviews for topics arranged alphabetically. ■ General encyclopedias cover many fields of knowledge: Encyclopedia Britannica,

Collier’s Encyclopedia. ■ Specialized encyclopedias focus on a single topic: McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of

Science and Technology, Encyclopedia of American Film Comedy.

Almanacs, yearbooks, and statistical resources, normally published annually, contain diverse facts.

■ The World Almanac and Book of Facts presents information on politics, history, religion, business, social programs, education, and sports.

■ Statistical Abstract of the United States provides data on population, geography, politics, employment, business, science, and industry.

Vocabulary resources supply information on languages. ■ General dictionaries, such as The American Heritage College Dictionary, supply

definitions and histories for a whole range of words. ■ Specialized dictionaries define words common to a field, topic, or group:

Dictionary of Engineering, The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. ■ Bilingual dictionaries translate words from one language to another.

Biographical resources supply information about people. General biographies cover a broad range of people. Other biographies focus on people from a specific group. Examples: Who’s Who in America, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, World Artists 1980–1990.

Directories supply contact information for people, groups, and organizations. Examples: The National Directory of Addresses and Telephone Numbers, USPS ZIP Code Lookup and Address Information (online), Official Congressional Directory.

Guides and handbooks help readers explore specific topics: The Handbook of North American Indians, A Guide to Prairie Fauna.

Indexes point you to useful resources. Some indexes are general, such as Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature; others are specific, such as Environment Index or Business Periodicals Index. (Many are now available online in databases your library subscribes to.)

Bibliographies list resources on a specific topic. A good, current bibliography can be used as an example when you compile your own bibliography on a topic.

Abstracts, like indexes, direct you to articles on a particular topic. But abstracts also summarize those materials so you learn whether a resource is relevant before you invest time in locating and reading it. Abstracts are usually organized into subject areas: Computer Abstracts, Environmental Abstracts, Social Work Abstracts. They are incorporated in many online subscription databases.

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■ Finding Periodical Articles Periodicals are publications or broadcasts produced at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly). Although some periodicals are broad in their subject matter and audience, as a rule they focus on a narrow range of topics geared toward a particular audience.

■ Daily newspapers and newscasts provide up-to-date information on current events, opinions, and trends—from politics to natural disasters (Wall Street Journal, USA Today, The NewsHour).

■ Weekly and monthly magazines generally provide more in-depth information on a wide range of topics (Time, Newsweek, 60 Minutes).

■ Journals, generally published quarterly, provide specialized scholarly information for a narrowly focused audience (English Journal).

With thousands of periodicals available, how do you find helpful articles? Learn (a) which search tools your library offers, (b) which periodicals it has available in which forms, and (c) how to gain access to those periodicals.

Search online databases. If your library subscribes to EBSCOhost, Lexis-Nexis, or another database service, use keyword searching (see pages 424–425) to find citations on your topic. You might start with the general version of such databases, such as EBSCOhost’s Academic Search Premier, which provides access to more than 4,100 scholarly publications covering all disciplines.

■ Basic Search: The example below shows an EBSCOhost search screen for a search on hybrid electric cars. Notice how limiters, expanders, and other advanced features help you find the highest-quality materials.

Database list Keyword field

Expanders available

Limiters available

Image courtesy of EBSCO Publishing

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Folder feature for “capturing” citations

“Sort” options

Numbered citations including titles, authors, journal information, length, location notes

Article links indicating article availability and format

Image courtesy of EBSCO Publishing

■ Advanced Search: A more focused research strategy would involve turning to specialized databases, which are available for virtually every discipline and are often an option within search services such as EBSCOhost (for example, Business Source Elite, PsycINFO, ERIC) and Lexis-Nexis (for example, Legal, Medical, and Business databases). If a basic search turns up little, turn to specialized databases, seeking help from a librarian if necessary. For a list of specialized databases, see page 457.

Generate citation lists of promising articles. Your database search should generate lists of citations, brief descriptions of articles that were flagged through keywords in titles, subject terms, abstracts, and so on. For example, a search focused on hybrid electric cars leads to the results shown below. At this point, study the results and do the following:

■ Refine the search by narrowing or expanding it. ■ Mark specific citations for “capture” or further study. ■ Re-sort the results. ■ Follow links in a specific citation to further information.

Particularly if you need articles published before 1985, you may need to go to the Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature or another print index. While databases are converting pre-1985 articles to digital form (for example, the JSTOR database), many excellent periodical articles are available only in print. To use the Readers’ Guide, consult a librarian.

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Study citations and capture identifying information. By studying citations (especially abstracts), you can determine three things:

■ Is this article relevant to your research? ■ Is an electronic, full-text version available? ■ If not, does the library have this periodical?

To develop your working bibliography (see pages 430–431), you should also “capture” the article’s identifying details by using the save, print, or e-mail function, or by recording the periodical’s title, the issue and date, and the article’s title and page numbers. These functions are shown in the EBSCOhost citation below.

Find and retrieve the full text of the article. When citations indicate that you have promising articles, access those articles efficiently, preferably through a direct link in the citation to an electronic copy. From there you can print, save, or e-mail the article. If the article is not available electronically, track down a print version:

■ Check the online citation to see if your library has the article. If necessary, check your library’s inventory of periodicals held; this list should be available online and/ or in print. Examine especially closely the issues and dates available, the form (print or microfilm), and the location (bound or current shelves).

■ To get the article, follow your library’s procedure. You may have to submit a request slip so that a librarian can get the periodical, or you may be able to get it yourself in the current, bound, or microfilm collection. If the article is not available online or in your library, use interlibrary loan.

Save options

Source link for more details or full text

Subject links for further research

Summary with keywords highlighted

Image courtesy of EBSCO Publishing

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Agricola offers citations from the National Agricultural Library group—with materials focused on issues from animal science to food and nutrition.

ARTbibliographies Modern abstracts articles, books, catalogs, and other resources on modern and contemporary art.

CAIRSS for Music offers bibliographic citations for articles on music-related topics, from music education to music therapy.

Communication & Mass Media Complete offers access to resources on topics like public speaking and TV broadcasting.

Engineering E-journal Search Engine offers free, full-text access to more than 150 online engineering journals.

ERIC offers citations, abstracts, and digests for more than 980 journals in the education field.

First Search, a fee-based information service, offers access to more than 30 scholarly databases in a range of disciplines.

GPO, the Government Printing Office, offers access to records for U.S. government documents (e.g., reports, hearings, judicial rules, addresses, and so on).

Health Source offers access to abstracts, indexing, and full-text material on health-related topics, from nutrition to sports medicine.

Ingenta offers citations for more than 25,000 journals, most in the sciences.

JSTOR offers full-text access to scholarly articles in a full range of disciplines, articles once available only in print.

Math Database offers article citations for international mathematics research.

Medline offers access to journals in medicine and medicine-related disciplines through references, citations, and abstracts.

MLA Bibliography provides bibliographic citations for articles addressing a range of modern- language and literature-related topics.

National Environmental Publications Internet Site (NEPIS) offers access to more than 6,000 EPA documents (full text, online).

PsycINFO offers access to materials in psychology and psychology-related fields (for example, social work, criminology, organizational behavior).

Scirus indexes science resources, citing article titles and authors, source publication information, and lines of text indicating the article’s content.

Vocation and Career Collection offers full-text access to more than 400 trade- and industry- related periodicals.

Worldwide Political Science Abstracts offers bibliographic citations in politics-related fields, from public policy to international law.

Databases for Disciplines Most libraries offer access to databases from a wide range of disciplines. Check your library’s website for access to databases like these:

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Learning-Outcomes Checklist Use the checklist below to assess what you have learned about getting started on a research project.

I understand the differences between primary and secondary sources, and I can make choices about them that fit my research project.

I can plan and conduct primary research such as informal surveys, interviews, observations, and analyses of documents and artifacts.

I have become familiar with my college library: its physical and online dimensions, especially the resources, search tools, and services it offers.

I can effectively find and work with reference works.

I can effectively find and work with books, especially scholarly and trade books.

I can effectively find and work with periodical articles available through library search tools.

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following activities.

1. Think about a research project that you have done or are doing now. How might primary research and library research (scholarly books and journals) strengthen your writing? Why not do all your research on the free web using Google and resources like Wikipedia?

2. For the subject “Gender Differences in Toy Preferences,” indicate whether the following sources would be considered primary or secondary (P or S):

a. Observing children in a day-care setting b. Journal article about gender-based differences in the brain c. Magazine article about a hot new toy d. Survey of day-care workers e. Boys’ Toys of the Fifties and Sixties (a book) f. Interviews with parents

3. By working with your library’s website and its orientation tools, identify where you can physically and/or electronically locate books, reference resources, and journals.

4. Indicate which section of the library would house the following items: a. JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) b. Places Rated Almanac c. Principles of Corporate Finance (book)

5. Brainstorm issues related to food production, consumption, or culture. Choosing one focused topic, use your library’s catalog and database tools to track down print books and periodical articles. Evaluate the nature, breadth, relevance, and quality of these resources for such a project. Then do a free-web search of the topic, comparing the results.

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459

Visually Speaking

Conducting Research on the Internet

What does the Internet map above tell you about Internet connections in the Western world? What about Internet use elsewhere? What do you think this map will look like in ten years? What does the map tell you about using the Internet for research?

The image below may look like a child’s scribble, but it shows something much more significant: city-to-city Internet connections. The bright tangle of lights on the left is the United States, and the bright tangle on the right is Europe. You’ll note, also, jags flying to cities in South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Asia.

Increasingly, the Internet is connecting the world. As you conduct research, you can not only find information from across the globe, but also can connect to the people who provide the information. This chapter helps you get the most out of the Internet as you prepare a research paper.

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand the basics of electronic research.

▶ Use search and metasearch to locate information.

▶ Use subject trees. ▶ Understand the strengths and limits of search engines and online resources.

▶ Evaluate the reliability of websites.

▶ Recognize appropriate and inappropriate sources.

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 Understanding Internet Basics Did you know that when you speak on your cell phone or send an e-mail, you are on the Internet? Did you know that the World Wide Web and the Internet are not the same? These two pages provide basic definitions and explanations of the digital world.

The Internet is a vast array of interconnected computers and computer networks. It began in 1969 with the ARPANET, a connection of U.S. government computers. Since then, the Internet has expanded into a worldwide system. E-mail, cell phones, and satellites all access and use the Internet, as do people on the World Wide Web.

The World Wide Web is a huge collection of websites and pages on the Internet, accessible through the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). Put simply, this protocol is a set of rules that allow computers to trade information. The World Wide Web was begun in 1989 by a British engineer named Tim Berners-Lee.

A uniform resource locator (URL) is the web address for each page available on the World Wide Web. Just as every home and business has a specific street address, every website has a specific web address that allows other computers to find and access it.

A domain name is the website address, often beginning with www and ending with an extension that indicates what type of site it is. Here is a list of common domain types:

A web browser is a program on your computer that provides access to the web. Common browsers include Internet Explorer, Safari, and Firefox.

http://www.ipl.org/div/subject/index.html

domain

extensionWorld Wide Web

pagehypertext transfer protocol

pathwebsite

.com a commercial or business site .gov a government site, for federal, state, or local government .edu an educational site .org a site for a nonprofit organization .net a site for an organization that belongs to the Internet’s infrastructure .mil a military site .biz a business site .info an information site

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A webpage is a specific grouping of information on the web. Webpages often including text, graphics, photographs, videos, and hyperlinks—which are words or graphics that can be clicked to take the user to different webpages.

A search engine is a specialized webpage that allows you to find specific terms on sites throughout the web. Here are some popular search engines:

Google http://www.google.com Bing http://www.bing.com Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com

Ask http://www.ask.com Dog Pile http://www.dogpile.com Ixquick http://www.ixquick.com

Complete Planet http://www.completeplanet.com

A metasearch engine is a web page that searches several other search engines at once, compiling the information. Here are some popular metasearch engines:

A deep-web tool is an Internet search engine or database that can access materials not available to basic search engines.

Common Webpage Elements

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Title bar

Navigation bar

Graphic link

Text links

Status bar

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 Using a Subject Guide/Directory A subject tree, sometimes called a subject guide or directory, lists websites that have been organized into categories by experts who have reviewed those sites. As such, a subject tree includes sites selected for reliability and quality.

1. Search-out the subject trees available to you. Check whether your library subscribes to a service such as NetFirst, a database in which subject experts have cataloged Internet resources by topic. Here are some other common subject directories:

WWW Virtual Library http://vlib.org/Overview.html

Ipl2 http://www.ipl.org/

Google Directory http://www.google.com/dirhp

LookSmart http://looksmart.com

2. Follow categories from broad to specific. A subject tree is arranged from general to specific, so you will need to begin by clicking on a broad category to see a more selective list. Clicking on subcategories will take you to progressively more focused lists. Read the name of a site, review the information beneath the name, check out the domain and extension, and decide if the site is worth exploring. If so, click on it. If not, go back and continue your search.

Common Subject Guide Elements

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Title bar

Search field

General category

Subcategories

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 Using Search and Metasearch Search and metasearch engines provide quick and powerful access to much of the content of the web. They are invaluable tools for researchers. This page gives tips for getting the most out of your searches, and the next two pages look at search in depth.

1. Select effective keywords: Keywords are words or phrases that the search engine looks for across the web. The more specific a keyword or phrase is, the more tightly a search will be focused. Here are a set of keywords for the research topic of “games used to simulate real-world scenarios”:

2. Use Boolean operators: In addition to using quotation marks, you can use words and symbols to make your search specific. (See also page 425.)

3. Act on search results: Once a search engine has generated a list of possible sites, you need to survey the results and act on them.

game This general term will produce a very unfocused list of millions of websites, ranging from stores selling games to recipes for cooking game.

simulation This more-specific term will narrow the search considerably, but will show off-topic sites such as suppliers of simulated wood products.

simulation game This set of keywords is much more specific, but the engine will also find sites using both words but not in combination.

“simulation game” The quotation marks around this search will turn up only sites that use the exact phrase “simulation game”

game and war and indicates sites with both terms

game + war + indicates sites with both terms

game not war not indicates sites with the first term but not the second

game – war – indicates sites with the first term but not the second

game or simulation or indicates sites with either term

■ Read the name of the site and determine how the term is used. ■ Review the domain and extension to decide if you will click it. ■ Look for information and links.

general

Specific

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 Using Search Engines as Research Tools Like millions of people, you probably “google it” when you have a question. But how should you use search engines for college research projects? A search engine is a program that automatically scours a large amount of web material using keywords and commands that you submit. In that respect, the search is only as productive as the terms you use, the quality of the search program, and the amount and areas of the web that the engine searches. When you use search engines, be aware of the issues below.

Web Coverage: Even though the largest search engines search billions of web resources, those pages represent just a portion of the web—as little as 20 percent. The point to keep in mind is that any given search engine is not searching the entire web for you and may be focusing on particular kinds of pages and documents. Moreover, a given engine may not be searching each resource in its entirety but only certain portions (e.g., citations) or up to a certain size of the document.

Resource Ranking: A search engine returns results in a ranking of resources based on complex mathematical algorithms—a weighing of a variety of criteria that differ from one engine to the next. One criterion used is the number of times your keywords appear in a given resource. A second criterion might be the number and type of links to a given page—a measure, in other words, of the site’s importance or popularity on the web. Moreover, organizations on the web work very hard to make sure that their pages get ranked near the top of searches; some companies hire consultants to help achieve this result or even try to fool the programs. In other words, what you are getting in your search is not necessarily an objective listing of the most relevant and reliable resources for an academic research project.

Search Habits: Using search engines is complicated not just by algorithms but by the habits of users themselves. Studies suggest, for example, that very few users look past the first three hits returned by a search, in fact, that only one percent of searchers go past the first ten hits. (You can understand, then, why some organizations work so hard to get into that top-ten list for specific keyword searches.) Moreover, very few users go on to refine their search after the initial results, supposedly satisfied with what they have found, although studies also suggest that few users can effectively evaluate the returned resources in terms of their quality, authority, objectivity, and timeliness (currency of information). The implications for your college research projects are clear: such search habits rarely lead to quality resources that you can use in an academic project.

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Use search engines well. Given how search engines work, what practices should you follow in using them for an academic research project? Obviously, start by following the assignment’s restrictions about using free-web resources. But here are four additional guidelines:

1. Restrict search-engine use to specific purposes. Generally, a search engine is useful for college research projects in these circumstances:

■ You have a very narrow topic in mind or an exact question you need answered. ■ You have a highly specific word or phrase to use in your search. ■ You want a large number of results. ■ You are looking for a specific type of Internet file. ■ You have the time to sort the material for reliability.

2. Learn to do advanced searches. Basic searches tend to lead to basic results. Most search engines actually allow you to do quite complex searches through advanced- search screens. With these, you can employ Boolean logic to a degree, use limiters and expanders, and refine your results in other ways. Study the search engine’s help pages for instructions on how to benefit from these advanced-searching techniques.

3. Approach results with suspicion. Given the wide-ranging quality and reliability of material on the free web, it is imperative that you evaluate resources that you find through search engines. See “Evaluating Online Sources” on pages 468-471.

4. Use search engines that seem to give you more quality results. Try out a variety of search engines using the same search, and compare the results. While you generally want to choose search engines that cover a large portion of the web, offer quality indexing, and give you high-powered search capabilities, you also want to consider a search-engine’s information focus: try out search engines whose goals seem more obviously focused on academics. Below are some suggestions.

■ Internet Public Library: http://www.ipl.org Offering access to electronic reference resources, to e-books and electronic articles, and to special collections, this site’s chief resource is its subject collections of web resources.

■ Infomine: http://infomine.ucr.edu Subtitled Scholarly Internet Resource Collections, this librarian-built site is designed for college and university faculty and students; the site offers researchers access to databases, electronic journals and books, and more, including government information.

■ LookSmart Find Articles.com: http://findarticles.com This commercial site can give you citations for articles on your topic, although getting full-text access may involve fees.

■ Google Scholar: http://scholar.google.com While it indexes just a small portion of all published articles, Google Scholar can help you build citations from a variety of sources, citations you can then find in your library’s subscription databases. Moreover, it ranks articles by weighing the full text, the author, the publication, and frequency of citation in other sources.

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 Understanding the Uses and Limits of Wikipedia You likely recognize the screen below—an article from Wikipedia. From its beginning in 2001 to today, a large population of volunteer writers and editors has made Wikipedia a top- ten Internet-traffic site. But is Wikipedia acceptable for college-level research? Put simply, Wikipedia is a controversial resource for academic research.

Know Wikipedia’s strengths. Because of its wiki nature, Wikipedia offers researchers a number of advantages.

■ Consensus Model of Knowledge: Articles represent a collaborative agreement about a topic—a topical knowledge base that is fair and fairly comprehensive. Generally, articles improve over time, offering “open-source” knowledge.

■ Currency of Information: Because they are web-based, articles are regularly monitored and updated—a distinct advantage over print encyclopedias.

■ Breadth of Information: With its size and global community, Wikipedia offers articles on a wide range of topics—especially strong in pop culture, current events, computer, and science topics.

■ Links: Articles are linked throughout so that readers can pursue associated topics, sources, recommended reading, and related categories.

Understand Wikipedia’s standards for truth. Wikipedia applies a different standard of truth than more traditional sources of information. In his revealing article, “Wikipedia and the Meaning of Truth,” Simson L. Garfinkle provides the following explanation. (See pages 239–243 for the complete essay.)

Unlike the laws of mathematics or science, wikitruth isn’t based on principles such as consistency or observability. It’s not even based on common sense or firsthand experience. Wikipedia has evolved a radically different set of epistemological standards—standards that aren’t especially surprising given that the site is rooted in a Web-based community, but that should concern those of us who are interested in traditional notions of truth and accuracy. On Wikipedia, objective truth isn’t all that important, actually. What makes a fact or statement fit for inclusion is that it appeared in some other publication—ideally, one that is in English and is available free online. “The threshold for inclusion in Wikipedia is verifiability, not truth,” states Wikipedia’s official policy on the subject.

Verifiability is one of Wikipedia’s three core content policies; it was codified back in August 2003. The two others are “no original research” (December 2003) and “neutral point of view,” which the Wikipedia project inherited from Nupedia, an earlier volunteer- written Web-based free encyclopedia that existed from March 2000 to September 2003 (Wikipedia’s own NPOV policy was codified in December 2001). These policies have made Wikipedia a kind of academic agora where people on both sides of politically charged subjects can rationally discuss their positions, find common ground, and unemotionally document their differences. Wikipedia is successful because these policies have worked.

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Know Wikipedia’s weaknesses. In some ways, Wikipedia’s strengths are closely related to its weaknesses for college-level research. Consider these issues:

Use Wikipedia cautiously. Based on Wikipedia’s strengths and weaknesses, follow these guidelines:

1. Respect your assignment. Instructors may give you varied instruction about using Wikipedia. Respect their guidelines.

2. Verify Wikipedia information. If you use information from Wikipedia, also use other more traditional sources to verify that information.

3. Use Wikipedia as a semi-authoritative reference source. Generally, the more academic your research assignment, the less you should rely on Wikipedia articles, which are essentially sources of basic and background information.

4. Use Wikipedia as one starting point. From a Wikipedia article, you can learn what is considered “open-source” knowledge on your topic, gather ideas for developing a topic, find links to related topics and other resources, and begin to build a bibliography.

5. Study individual articles to get a sense of their reliability. When you find a Wikipedia article relevant to your research project, check the article for quality and stability. Use the evaluation criteria on the following pages, but also check the article’s history, its discussion page, any tags or icons indicating the article’s state, and the “what links here” link in the toolbox at the left of the screen.

■ Popularity Model of Knowledge: The dynamics of popularity can lead to bias, imbalance, and errors. In some ways, this approach minimizes the value of training, education, and expertise while promoting a kind of democracy of knowledge.

■ Anonymity of Authorship: Wikipedia allows contributors to remain anonymous. Researchers thus have little way of checking credentials and credibility.

■ Variable Quality of Content: While many well-established articles are quite stable, balanced, and comprehensive, other articles can be partial, driven by a biased perspective, erroneous, and poorly sourced.

■ Variable Coverage: Wikipedia’s strength in some content areas is matched by gaps and incompleteness in other content areas.

■ Vulnerability to Vandalism: Wikipedia has a number of processes in place to limit people from harming articles with misinformation, with the result that most vandalism is corrected within hours, but some errors have persisted for months.

■ Tertiary Nature of Information: For most research projects, Wikipedia articles function as tertiary sources—reports of reports of research. As such, Wikipedia articles are not substantial enough for academic projects.

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 Evaluating Online Sources The Internet contains a wealth of information, but much of it is not suitable for a research report. The information may be incorrect, biased, outdated, plagiarized, or otherwise unreliable. These pages discuss issues to watch for.

Assignment Restrictions Before engaging any web resources, carefully review your assignment and note any restrictions on what type of sources may be used. If web resources are allowed, abide by the number or percentage indicated in the assignment.

Author/Organization When using web resources, make sure the sites are sponsored by legitimate, recognizable organizations: government agencies, nonprofit groups, and educational institutions. For most projects, avoid relying on personal or special-interest sites, as well as chat rooms, blogs, news groups, or wikis. (These sources may help you explore a topic, but they do not provide scholarly material suitable for most research reports.)

Balance or Bias Be aware of the purpose of a site or an article. Editorials and reviews, for example, express the point of view of a given author but are not sources for unbiased information. Unless your purpose is to show the author’s point of view or point out two sides of an argument, avoid sources that show a bias toward or against a specific region, country, political party, industry, gender, race, ethnic group, or religion. Also, avoid sites that promote a specific cause, product, service, or belief.

Quality of Information Test the quality of information on a site. Note whether the information is current (when was it posted/updated last) and check it against other sources for corroboration. Also, favor sites with a depth of information and those that show they truly engage their topic rather than treating it superficially.

Quality of Writing and Design Avoid sites that show sloppy editing and poor design. These surface flaws can reveal a lack of scholarly rigor or serious commitment on the part of the site’s creators.

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Evaluation Checklist Use this checklist to assess the reliability of web sources. The more items you check off, the more reliable the source is.

Assignment Restrictions

1. Does the source fit with the type and number allowed in the assignment?

Author/Organization

2. Is the person or organization behind the site reliable? 3. Is contact information for the person or organization provided? 4. Is the site well known and well connected in the field? 5. Does the site have a clear “About Us” page and mission statement?

Balance or Bias

6. Is the material on the site balanced and unbiased? 7. Does the site avoid unfair and inflammatory language? 8. Does the site avoid pushing a particular product, cause, service, or belief? 9. Does the site provide ample support for its claims? 10. Does the site avoid logical fallacies and twisted statistics? (See pages

257–260.)

Quality of Information

11. Is the material current? 12. Is the website often updated? 13. Is the website information-rich? 14. Is the information backed up by other reputable print and online sources?

Quality of Writing and Design

15. Is the text free of errors in punctuation, spelling, and grammar? 16. Is the site effectively and clearly designed?

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 Sample Evaluations

Assignment Restrictions

Author/ Organization

Balance or Bias

Quality of Information

Quality of Writing

and Design

Reliable

■ The site below would be appropriate for most assignments about the life and work of William Faulkner, as long as free-web sources are allowed.

■ This site is sponsored by the University of Mississippi, a scholarly source for information, and the article’s author, Dr. John B. Padgett, is an authority on Faulkner.

■ The site clearly extols Faulkner as a great writer but does not shy from showing his shortcomings. The claims are fair and amply supported, without logical fallacies.

■ The website is current, often updated, and information-rich. It is also connected to many other Faulkner resources available on the web.

■ The site is well designed, with easy navigation, readable text, informative headings, helpful photos, and strong links. The text is well written and well edited.

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Unreliable

■ As a blog, the made-up website below would not be appropriate for an assignment about the life and work of William Faulkner. A site such as this should be recognized as ref lective only of the writer’s opinion, not of reliable information or fact.

■ There is no author or organization listed for this website. The domain name— myviewsonliterature.wordpress.com—shows that this is a personal opinion blog. Its lack of connection to other websites shows it represents an isolated opinion.

■ This blog post shows a strong bias against William Faulkner. The few facts cited inadequately support the writer’s main point, and logical fallacies are apparent. The tone of the post is unscholarly, with inf lammatory language.

■ Though this website is frequently updated, the blog post does not represent current scholarship about William Faulkner. The website is information-poor and is not backed up by any reputable print or online sources.

■ The site has an amateurish design and numerous errors, including the persistent misspelling of William Faulkner’s name. The writing is slipshod and the editing is poor.

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Learning-Outcomes Checklist As you conduct Internet research, use the following checklist:

I understand the differences between the Internet, the World Wide Web, and the deep web.

I know how to use subject trees to discover high-quality, vetted sites for my research.

I understand how to use search and metasearch, selecting effective key terms and using Boolean operators.

I understand the strengths and limits of search engines such as Google and online resources such as Wikipedia; I can use these tools effectively.

I understand the source restrictions on the assignment.

I have carefully evaluated each Internet source for credible authorship, reliable sponsorship, lack of bias, currency, accuracy, logical support, and quality design.

I know the warning signs of unreliable sources.

Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following activities.

1. Explore your library’s handouts and website for information about Internet research. What services, support, and access does the library provide? Explore the various resources with your own major in mind, and draft an informal report to share with your instructor and classmates about the resources available in your discipline.

2. With a current research project in one of your classes as the focus, conduct a search for this project using a search engine listed on page 461. Save useful URLs and articles in the research file. Then use one of the subject trees on page 462 to investigate and evaluate potential websites for the same project. Save useful URLs and articles. Compare and contrast these two processes for finding Internet information.

3. Using the variety of methods outlined in this chapter, work with some classmates to search the Internet for information on a controversial topic, event, person, or place. Carefully analyze and evaluate the range of web information you find— the quality, perspective, depth, and reliability. Create a report on your findings for the rest of the class.

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Visually Speaking

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When you write a research paper, you enter a larger conversation about your topic. The paper should center on your own ideas while thoughtfully engaging with the ideas of others. Crediting sources ensures that each voice in the conversation is fairly represented.

This chapter focuses on effective and conscientious use of sources in your writing, with tips for avoiding source abuse and plagiarism. It also helps you write a first draft of your paper.

Drafting a Paper with Documented Research30

How does the photograph above connote the process of deciding what sources to include in a paper?

Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand and avoid

plagiarism.

▶ Avoid other source abuses. ▶ Organize and synthesize

your findings.

▶ Develop your first draft. ▶ Use source material in your

writing.

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