Local governments have historically been beholden to their states and the ultimate authority that these states possess. This authority formally dates to the passage of Dillon’s Rule in 1868, which established that local governments can only exercise powers explicitly granted by their respective states or powers that are clearly implied (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). Local governments and states are usually structured to regulate a local government’s finances, personnel standards, structure, operating processes, general functions, and standards of service, although the actual powers granted to localities vary widely (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). This has been an issue for concern in recent times as local governments find themselves shouldering greater burdens of responsibility while still being considered as subsidiary or subservient to their respective states (Chen, 2017). These responsibilities often include human services as well as K-12 education that municipalities and school districts possess general oversight over, while still deferring to the state in the previously mentioned areas (Salkin & Gottlieb, 2012). Many state constitutions have instituted home rule, which provides more discretion to local government operations, although in some cases, states have had to intervene when localities have found themselves in severe budgetary or related peril. Although the relationships between states and local governments can be tenuous at times, certain new concerns and considerations have prompted the need for greater cooperation between these governments. Homeland security issues and concerns are one area for which outcomes of simulations and scenarios conveyed a necessity for more robust communication, delegation, and general coordination efforts between local and state governments (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). Mandates and Urban Sprawl When states want to convey a directive or to influence some type of behavior, they will often use mandates, requirements that are imposed by states on local-level governments to achieve what are perceived to be necessary goals and general uniformity (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). Because mandates are often unfunded and may not be in line with desired local initiatives, they can be unpopular at lower levels of government. At times, these mandates can conflict with local cutback spending initiatives when local revenues are unable to meet expenses. In some cases, they may be the primary reason for the cutback spending (Baker, 2011). However, not all state and local relationships are adversarial, as governments often work together on intergovernmental task forces and advisory commissions, as well as with specialized agencies that are focused on state governments’ promotion of local affairs (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). Often related to technological advancements, the ever-changing preferences of citizens as they relate to the structure and designs of cities, retailer placement, and the general planning of urban areas have been a major area of concern for state and local government officials for over a century (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). Explosive and unplanned growth has led to urban sprawl and straining of government services in newly developed or greatly expanded areas. Local governments, which are almost always the most impacted by these developments, usually take the lead in developing solutions for associated issues that arise, while state governments provide guidance and tools to help local governments and to promote smart growth and antisprawl initiatives (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). As a result of the modern growth patterns, nontraditional shadow governments, such as homeowners associations and planning commissions, have arisen in order for certain groups to privately manage certain aspects of their communities (Bowman & Kearney, 2017); however, questions of equity and accountability inevitably arise, as these organizations generally do not operate within the same confines as established governmental entities (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). PUA 6304, Local Government 3 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title Regional Governance and Contemporary Areas of Interest Local governments do not always maintain the same consistency or composition, and, over time, there is consolidation or fragmentation of local government entities. In some cases, a regional government may be created to consolidate smaller jurisdictions, which often involves the consolidation of city and county government entities. This can be beneficial as more resources then become available to combine to solve common problems (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). This does not necessarily translate into more efficient outcomes, and, in many cases, citizens find themselves more distanced from the previous closeness of government officials and more centralized services (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). In response, those in the newly created or fragmented communities have used legal means and processes to adopt their own political status via formal incorporation, as well as to develop the associated governmental services that they had previously disassociated with (Garnett, 2007). Proponents of public choice argue that leaving multiple local governments in close proximity to each other, all with unique characteristics, provides the public with greater choice regarding how they want to associate with government (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). Ultimately, states must provide an attractive environment for regionalism to take root, dictating terms and conditions for consolidation efforts to take place and contributing input and/or directive on such issues as taxation and resource distribution (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). This includes working together with local governments to set clear policies for land use coordination and making appropriate population growth estimates (Sullivan, 2016). Councils of government (COGs) can be valuable coordinating bodies comprised of personnel throughout regions that help formulate planning and operational efforts for proposed and existing regional governments (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). These multi-government arrangements do not only exist between local governments and their respective states. At the federal level, regionalism exists between larger regions of the country where states essentially take on the roles of local governments, and the federal government oversees and works with states on regional policy development (Drabenstott, 2006). Regarding urban politics, there are three major contemporary areas where state policies and intervention are perceived to be of particular importance, at least in modern times: Urban sprawl (Lincolnwong, 2005) PUA 6304, Local Government 4 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title housing policy—previous federal initiatives to help guarantee affordable housing options have been taken over by the states; infrastructure policy—in which linkages between further development and upgrading existing infrastructure are emphasized by many state governments; and new urbanism—local emphasis on pedestrian-friendly entities that reject the more common suburban model, and states may look to this model to revitalize decaying central city growth. Ultimately, whether local governments decide to pursue such areas or to engage in other growth-related or other initiatives, their respective state government directives reign supreme, even if these directives are often influenced by local priorities (Bowman & Kearney, 2017). Effectively management of this relationship by both local and state authorities is vital to effective intergovernmental workings. Nonprofit Sector Growth and Staffing In previous units, significant components have been dedicated to the expansive third, or nonprofit, sector. As of 2014, nonprofits accounted for over 10 percent of total private sector employment in the United States (Nonprofits, 2014). Additionally, the third sector experienced continued growth throughout the most recent major recession and in the years following even as many other private sector industries, as well as some public sector entities, experienced job stagnation (Chordas, 2014). With this monumental and sustained growth over the last decade, the importance of effective hiring processes for third sector organizations has developed into a topic of increased emphasis. At times, the attention on this topic relates to concerns of liability, largely due to the fact that many nonprofits employ a large proportion of volunteers, which adds a number of different considerations to legal issues and concerns (Kelley, 2014a). In other cases, processes and strategies related to employee retention efforts have been areas of increased attention as some of the qualities of nonprofits that initially draw employee interest are not sustainable long term (Lewis, 2014). Additionally, nonprofit organizations and their respective hiring managers have, at times, found themselves guilty of making some of the more common hiring mistakes. Some of these mistakes include being too hasty to fill open spots, which may be a byproduct of the explosive industry growth, allowing employees to serve as both volunteer workers as well as salaried employees, and treating employees more like clients as opposed to treating them in ways that are more consistent with how one would expect to treat an intrinsically and service-motivated worker (Kelley, 2014b). PUA 6304, Local Government 5 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title What are some of the areas that effective nonprofits do, or should, consider when engaged in recruitment or hiring processes? Koenig (2017) contends that some of the most capable prospects will actually have traditional private sector backgrounds as well as some type of experience or unique interest in the general area of the organization that they will ultimately end up working for or with. In terms of third sector volunteers, it is simple enough to rely on word of mouth or for organizations to periodically place calls for volunteers or volunteer opportunities. However, Ellis (2014) emphasizes the importance of meeting volunteers at their points of juncture or creating situations where the most viable prospective volunteers, those with the most interest in the organization/organization’s work or mission, are most likely to be in the vicinity of the organization or the organization’s recruiters. Whether planning for organization expansion and growth primarily involves paid employees, volunteer support, or some combination of both, those involved with the third sector or those with special interest in it benefit from acknowledging the sector’s trends and some of the basic considerations regarding unique employment considerations. References Baker, D. L. (2011). Local government cutback budgeting: Since the 2008 financial meltdown, local governments continue to scramble to develop sustainable budgets. The Public Manager, 40(1), 9. Bowman, A. O., & Kearney, R. C. (2017). State and local government (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Chen, S. A. (2017). Power to the cities: In an age of global turmoil, urban solutions should lead the way. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 63(42), B14. (State Farm, 2013) As of 2014, nonprofits accounted for over 10 percent of total private sector employment in the United States. (States News Service, 2014) (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2004) (Roussel, 2009) PUA 6304, Local Government 6 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title Chordas, L. (2014). A favorable market: Nonprofits are trying to rebound from the recent recession and getting necessary coverages, thus opening up opportunities for producers. Best's Review, 114(10), 24. Drabenstott, M. (2006). Rethinking federal policy for regional economic development. Economic Review (Kansas City), 91(1), 115. Ellis, S. J. (2014, June 1). The hunted: Recruit volunteers at points of juncture. The Non-Profit Times, 28(7), 22. Garnett, N. S. (2007). Suburbs as exit, suburbs as entrance. Michigan Law Review, 106(2), 277. Kelley, S. (2014a). Risky business: There’s liability for the acts of your volunteers. The Non-Profit Times, 28(7), 23. Kelley, S. (2014b). You hired who? Top 10 nonprofit employment mistakes. The Non-Profit Times, 28(12), 13. Koenig, R. (2017). Google alumna brings hiring know-how to nonprofit. The Chronicle of Philanthropy, 29(6), 44. Lewis, N. (2014). Nearly half of all nonprofits plan to add jobs this year. The Chronicle of Philanthropy, 26(8). Lincolnwong. (2005). Melbourne2 [Image]. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Melbourne2.jpg Nonprofits account for 11.4 million jobs, 10.3 percent of all private sector employment. (2014, October 21). States News Service. 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