Patrol Methods exam
“Just do what you can […] make it work!” Exploring the impact of rapid population
growth on police organizations in western North Dakota
Thorvald O. Dahle and Carol A. Archbold Department of Criminal Justice and Political Science,
North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine how rapid population growth resulting from the oil boom affects police organizations in western North Dakota. Design/methodology/approach – Using face-to-face interviews with 101 police personnel working in eight law enforcement agencies, this study explores how rapid population growth affects police organizations (in general), police resources, and the work environment of police organizations located in four counties in western North Dakota. Resource dependency theory and contingency theory provide a theoretical framework for understanding how changes in the communities (external environment) have led to changes within police organizations in this region. Findings – Rapid population growth resulting from the oil boom in western North Dakota has required police agencies to make changes in the way that they are structured and function. In addition, the rapid increase in population has also strained police organizations’ resources. Research limitations/implications – The findings from this study may only be applicable to police organizations in western North Dakota. Interviews are based on police officers’ perceptions. Practical implications – Findings from this study suggest that police organizations in western North Dakota are currently experiencing a bad “fit” with their external environment. In order to get back to a good “fit” additional resources are needed from the state government. Social implications – The number of calls for police service have increased dramatically since the oil boom began in 2008 in the Bakken region of western North Dakota. The addition of police officers and needed resources has not kept pace with the rapid population growth. The quality of police service to the public will decline if additional resources are not made available to police organizations. Originality/value – This paper features the first and only study of the impact of rapid population growth on police organizations in western North Dakota. This study is both timely and important as the population growth in western North Dakota is predicted to continue for several decades into the future. Keywords Organization, Police, Rural policing, Oil boom, Rapid population growth Paper type Research paper
Communities across western North Dakota are experiencing unprecedented population growth as a result of the oil “boom” occurring in the state. Williston, ND was named the fastest growing micropolitan area in the USA from 2012 to 2013, while McKenzie County (ND) was the fastest growing county, experiencing a 46 percent increase during that two-year period (United States Census Bureau, 2014). Recent statistics also show that six of the ten fastest growing counties in the USA are located in western North Dakota (United States Census Bureau, 2014). The rapid increase in population has stimulated the state’s economy, but has also created strain on local infrastructures and government agencies (Holeywell, 2011).
Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management
Vol. 38 No. 4, 2015 pp. 805-819
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1363-951X
DOI 10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2015-0037
Received 16 March 2015 Revised 27 May 2015
1 June 2015 3 June 2015
Accepted 5 June 2015
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/1363-951X.htm
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Rapid population growth poses a challenge to law enforcement agencies in western North Dakota. As population growth continues in this region, so does the volume of requests for police service from the public. For example, the Williston Police Department received 5,542 service calls in 2008, compared to 15,954 service calls in 2011 (Montana All Threat Intelligence Center and North Dakota State and Local Intelligence Center, 2012). This upward trend in calls for service is occurring in most police agencies located in western North Dakota. Many police organizations located in the Bakken region are struggling to obtain resources and personnel to cope with the increasing demands placed on them (Cohen, 2014).
The previous examples suggest that some police organizations located in western North Dakota are operating with limited employees and resources, and are experiencing changes within their communities as a result of the rapid population growth. The qualitative study presented in this paper examines how rapid population growth resulting from the oil boom affects police organizations in western North Dakota.
Rapid population growth, energy “booms”, and police organizations Despite the fact that energy resource development has increased in the USA during the last four decades, there has been limited literature published on policing in energy “boomtowns.” One of the earliest publications on this topic focusses on changes occuring within the Evanston Wyoming Police Department (Taft, 1981). Officers stated that changes were taking place within their organization as a result of the population growth in their community. Rapid population growth led to the Evanston Police Department tripling in size (from seven to 21 officers) over the course of six years (Taft, 1981). Despite the acquisition of more resources, officers believed that the addition of patrol officers and new equipment was not keeping pace with the increasing demands from the public. Taft’s (1981) article is important as it highlights ways that rapid population growth in the region led to changes within the Evanston Police Department. The population growth in Evanston drained police resources and led to changes in the operation of the police department.
Covey and Menard (1984) examined changes in crime, characteristics of criminal offenders, and police practices resulting from rapid population growth in the Rocky Mountain region of the USA. Interviews with police personnel in rapid growth areas served as the main data source in this study. Covey and Menard (1984) found that rapid population growth resulted in greater demands placed on police organizations in the region. Police organizations created specialized positions to contend with new problems resulting from the rapid population growth. Many police agencies improved their method of record keeping to monitor changes in crime trends and demand for police service (Covery and Menard, 1984). Police personnel in this study also identified organizational and operational differences occurring because of the energy boom in this region. Specifically, officers reported that their organizations had become more bureaucratic in structure, and officer behavior became more formal during their interactions with the public (Covey and Menard, 1984, p. 169). Findings from this study reveal that rapid population growth resulting from energy development led to organizational changes within police agencies in the region.
In 2011, Ruddell examined the deployment of police officers in Fort McMurray (Canada), which was experiencing an increase in crime as a result of an energy boom. Using police and crime data from 1986 to 2008, this study found that police strength lagged behind both population growth and increasing crime in this location. Police officers working in the area dealt with rates of crime three times higher than the
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national average in Canada. The increase in crime and service calls resulted in police officers having much heavier workloads than before the energy boom. Findings from this study show how population growth can outpace resources available to police organizations located in energy boom regions.
Most recently, Ruddell and Ortiz (2014) examined citizens’ perceptions of safety, community concerns, and police priorities in the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo in Canada. Citizens reported that drugs, speeding/aggressive driving, drinking and driving, gangs, and assaults should be viewed as top priorities for the local police. Community feedback from boomtown residents could be valuable to police organizations as they determine the best use of their resources. This is especially important for police organizations located in energy boom regions as there is some evidence that energy booms strain police resources.
All of the existing literature on policing in boomtowns is important; however, additional research is needed to understand how rapid population growth affects change in police organizations.
Understanding organizational change Developed in the 1960s, the open-systems perspective is based on the premise that organizational structure and operations are influenced by their external environment (Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967). Various political, economic, and social groups/factors found within an organization’s work environment can influence change. In contrast, the closed-systems perspective contends that organizations have little or no interaction with groups in their environment; thus, the impact of the work environment on organizations is limited (Silverman, 1968). Gary Cordner (1978) was one of the first scholars to apply the open-systems perspective to police organizations. He argued that open models are most appropriate for police organizations as officers’ conduct their work in environments that are unstable and complex. Contingency theory and resource dependency theory share the open-systems perspective that an organization’s progression and survival depends upon its relationships within the external environment.
Contingency theory Contingency theory is based on the idea that organizational change occurs when an organization attempts to match its internal characteristics to contingencies present in the environment in which it operates (Donaldson, 1987). Thompson (1967) broadly defines contingencies as any occurrence beyond the control of the organization that is viewed as a challenge. The external environment of an organization consists of individuals, groups, and conditions that can lead to organizational change.
Changes in the external environment can lead to alterations in organizational structure, such as a change in organizational size and complexity (Blau and Schoenherr, 1971). The implementation of innovative programs or technology is another way that organizations respond to changes occurring in the external environment (Dewar and Hage, 1978). Donaldson (1995) believes that organizations dealing with turbulent environments are more likely to adopt new technology or innovative programs in an effort to return to a good “fit” with their external environment.
An organization structures itself and operates in ways that allow it to best “fit” into the external environment (Donaldson, 1987; Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967). An organization’s ability to “fit” into its external environment is important, as a good “fit” leads to greater organizational performance and increased organizational efficiency (Van de Ven and Drazin, 1985). Organizations that do not make changes to
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better “fit” into their external environment will likely be ineffective and inefficient. The goal of efficiency and effectiveness motivates organizations to avoid any misfit that results after there have been any change in contingencies in the external environment. Organizational adaptation to the external environment is a continuous process as conditions within the external environment can change at any time.
Resource dependency theory Resource dependency theory also focusses on how conditions in the external environment impact organizations, specifically organizational resources. Resource dependency theorists argue that organizations are dependent on resources found within their external environment (Donaldson, 1995; Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978). Organizations experience uncertainty when critical resources are limited. It is during times of uncertainty that organizations make structural and/or procedural changes to secure resources, and increase the likelihood that resources will continue to be available in the future (Donaldson, 1995; Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978).
Various groups within the external environment control access to resources necessary for the growth and survival of organizations. Organizations need to make adjustments to accommodate changes in the environment and the interests of groups possessing valuable resources. A power differential can exist among the organizations that need resources and the groups in the external environment who control access to resources (Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978). Public organizations, such as police agencies, depend on support provided by local, county, state, and federal government. Because the various levels of government determine the distribution of resources to public organizations, it is critical that public organizations are responsive to the interests of the funding government groups, and in some cases, be able to demonstrate need for resources.
Organizations can also search for opportunities to acquire additional resources within their external environment. Some organizations will partner with other agencies or participate in exchanges with other organizations that are also trying to access resources (Scott and Davis, 2007). This partnership or exchange results in a symbiotic relationship where all involved organizations benefit from working together.
Contingency theory and resource dependency theory were used as conceptual guides to shape the analysis and interpretation of the research findings in the current study. These theories are appropriate for this study as the interview questions answered by police personnel deal directly with changes in their community (external environment) and how changes in the community impact organizational resources. The current study responds to the following research questions:
RQ1. How has rapid population growth affected police organizations (in general) in western North Dakota?
RQ2. Has rapid population growth changed the work environment of police organizations in western North Dakota?
RQ3. How have resources within police organizations in western North Dakota been affected by rapid population growth?
Methods Data The current study utilizes face-to-face interviews with 101 sworn police personnel working in the Bakken region of western North Dakota. Face-to-face interviews took
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place October 2012 through March 2013. The interviews occurred in offices located inside police agencies or in police squad cars during ride-alongs. On average, each of the interviews lasted 45 minutes. Open-ended questions allowed interviewees to provide rich, detailed responses that include examples based on their professional experiences and interactions with residents in their communities (Ballou, 2008).
Research sites Eight police agencies located in four counties across western North Dakota served as research sites for this study. A combination of factors influenced the selection of research sites: First, limited resources narrowed the scope and sample of this study. Geographic location was another factor that influenced the selection of research sites. All of the sites had to be located within the Bakken oil shale formation in western North Dakota. Population growth was also considered when choosing research sites. All research sites had to experience population growth in recent years. According to the US Census, all eight research sites have experienced population growth since 2010 (see Table I). Finally, police agencies had to agree to participate in this study.
Police agencies of various sizes are included in this study. Three agencies employ ten or less employees, four agencies employ 11-40 employees, and one agency employs more than 40 employees. More than half of all sworn personnel from each police agency voluntarily participated in face-to-face interviews. Overall, 73 percent (101/138) of all sworn police personnel employed by the eight police agencies participated in this study.
Police personnel of various ranks participated in interviews for this study. In smaller agencies, people in supervisory/management positions respond to calls for service alongside patrol-level officers and sheriff’s deputies. Most (76 percent) of the sample consists of patrol officers and sheriff’s deputies, while 24 percent consists of personnel serving in positions ranging from the rank of sergeant to chief of police or sheriff. Over half (55 percent) of the police personnel interviewed for this study had 36 months or less of policing experience at the time of the interviews; 11 percent had 37-72 months; 7 percent had 73-119 months, and 27 percent had 120 or more months of experience. More than half (58 percent) of the police personnel are married, and over half (55 percent) have children. Approximately one-third (35 percent) have earned high school diplomas and/or some college credits, while 40 percent have two-year degrees, 24 percent have four-year degrees, and 1 percent have graduate degrees. In an effort to protect the identities of female and racial/ethnic minority officers, no data was collected on officer race/ethnicity or gender.
Coding and analysis Transcription facilitated the conversion of all hand written interview notes into electronic word files after the completion of each interview. Data analysis began when the interviews began. This process is based on Glaser’s (1965) constant comparative method where researchers begin their analysis with the first data collected, and then continuously compare themes, concepts, and categories for the duration of data collection. Members of the research team identified patterns and themes in the interview data as they conducted interviews independently, but also convened at the end of every day of interviews to compare and discuss categories and themes emerging from the interviews. In this study, two researchers coded all interview data. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion.
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Final coding and analyses of data followed six general steps (Creswell, 2003): First, the organization of interview data involved grouping the responses to each individual interview question together, and then grouping individual responses to the interview questions by police agency. Second, a thorough reading of all interview notes resulted
2000 2010 2013
Williston populationa 12,512 14,760 20,850 Sworn officersb 21 24 38 Calls for servicec 2,201 16,495 21,075 Annual budgetd $1,007,900 $2,848,181 $3,105,600
Watford city population 1,435 1,744 3,284 Sworn officers 4 5 10 Calls for service 41 (2006) 2,103 6,966 Annual budget $182,635 $464,812 $1,252,508
Killdeer population 713 751 975 Sworn officers – 2 3 Calls for service 629 (2005) 2,103 3,109 Annual budget – $159,630 $355,238
Tioga population 1,125 1,230 1,565 Sworn officers – 3 6 Calls for service 44 (2005) 166 – Annual budget – – –
Minot population 36,567 40,888 43,746 Sworn officers 60 60 72 Calls for service 27,933 30,363 35,297 Annual budget $3,605,471 $5,760,888 $8,807,863
McKenzie county population 5,737 6,360 9,314 Sworn deputies 5 8 14 Calls for service 2,754 (2005) 4,371 6,941 (2011) Annual budget $332,522 $703,698 $1,820,000
Ward county population 58,795 61,675 67,990 Sworn deputies 20 22 27 Calls for service 3,567 6,080 9,164 Annual budget $1,039,523 $1,906,225 $3,233,304
Williams county population 19,761 22,398 29,595 Sworn deputies 19 20 33 Calls for service – 1,426 2,476 (2011) Annual budget $818, 906 (2004) $1,293,281 $3,228,578 Notes: aPopulation data were collected from the US Census Bureau website: www.census.gov/ Population data for 2013 are based on estimates provided by the US Census; bThe number of sworn officers was collected from the North Dakota Attorney General’s website: www.ag.nd.gov/Reports/ BCIReports/CrimeHomicide/CrimeHomicide.htm Tioga police department and Killdeer Police Department did not provide agency personnel data. Many small police agencies in western North Dakota do not report or have only recently started to report to the UCR; cCalls for service data were collected through telephone calls and e-mails to the chiefs of police and sheriffs from each research site. Any data that were not provided by police administrators was collected by the North Dakota State and Local Intelligence Center. Many agencies in this study did not track calls for service data (– is no data available); dBudget data were collected through phone calls and e-mails to city and county auditors. Data were not provided by auditors in three jurisdictions
Table I. Community and police organization profiles, 2000, 2010, 2013
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in several general categories based on the responses provided for each interview question. Third, detailed coding occurred during several additional iterations of review of the interview notes. Fourth, specific information found within the detailed coding categories provide descriptions of any general changes to police organizations, the work environment of police organizations, and police resources in western North Dakota. Fifth, percentages represent the aggregate responses for each interview question. Several quotes from individual interviews accompany the aggregate findings to provide examples of the main themes. Randomly assigned codes (such as PO 7, PO 42, etc.) are placed at the end of each quote to show that the quotes come from a wide range of police officer interviews, as opposed to using quotes from only a select few interviews. The percentages for the responses provided for each interview question may not always equal 100 percent as many police personnel provided more than one answer for most of the interview questions. The sixth step in the process included the final interpretation of the research findings. Contingency theory and resource dependency theory provide a theoretical context for the research findings.
Findings The RQ1 examines how rapid population growth has affected police organizations (in general) in western North Dakota. When asked how rapid population growth has affected their organization, over half (67 percent) of police personnel reported that their agency no longer has the resources to keep up with the calls for service from the public. Half (50 percent) stated that their agency has hired more officers in recent years to keep up with the increase in demand for service; however, they believe that the hiring of additional officers has not kept pace with the increasing volume of service calls. Officer retention was identified as a problem due to the increasing cost of living in the region, as well as officers feeling overworked due to staffing shortages:
We have had a few new hires. We have a little more equipment. We have had additional training provided to us. We have had to change from more of a small town mentality to big city mentality. We are always playing catch up because we are always behind with calls for service. The growth in this community is much faster than the resources we are getting to increase the number of employees in this agency. Responding to problems that come our way becomes difficult when we do not have enough people working here (PO 10).
The organization has doubled in size. That includes deputies and other people working in more specialized roles like investigations and the task force. We have a new jail but we are already starting to outgrow that after only a few years (PO 2).
Officers reported that the increase in calls for service has had an impact on organizational operations. The increase in service calls has made it difficult to provide the same kind of service that was given to citizens in the past. In pre-boom years, police personnel had time to talk with citizens in their communities in both formal and informal capacities. Today, officers respond to service calls in a fast paced, reactive, and formal manner. Officers reported that they do not have time to explain to citizens what they are doing and why they are taking formal actions:
I used to be able to talk to people, listen to their problems and then try to help them. Now I show up for the call and quickly move on to the next one. I make more arrests now than I ever have in the past, there is no question about that (PO 4).
We have added more staff. We have a bigger building. Our gun safe is much fuller than before. We have had to adapt to the change. We have plate readers which we didn’t have
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before. We feel safer having the license plate reader because we know who we are going to be talking to when we stop someone before we even approach them in their vehicle. I can tell you that we have much more discretion now to answer the kinds of calls that we want to. We don’t waste our time with unlocking people’s locked car doors, nothing like that. We have to deal with more serious situations which makes more minor situations like car locks less of a priority (PO 11).
Many police organizations recently adopted or are planning to adopt new technology or have created specialized positions in response to the changes occurring in their communities. During pre-boom years, some of the police agencies in this study did not use computers to track calls for service or generate police reports. One agency recorded their calls for service using a note pad and pencil before the population growth began in their community. Some (26 percent) officers reported that their organizations now utilize new technology as a way to keep up with the increased workload and to deal with crime problems that were not prevalent during pre-boom years:
The manpower in our agency has been affected. When I was hired three years ago, I was the third officer. Since then, the city has added two more full-time positions and five reserve officers to work the streets. The city has also felt the need to incorporate a community service program (CSP). The CSP handles parking complaints and animal calls for service (PO 45).
It has provided new equipment. Prior to this, the agency had been behind the times. In more of a regional sense, it has resulted in our local and county law enforcement agencies creating a tactical team (not a SWAT team, but something to deal with some higher risk situations). They are considering doing the same thing in a neighboring county. It would take the closest SWAT team 5-8 hours to get here with their Bearcat (armored SWAT vehicle). A neighboring agency is in the process of getting a Bearcat (PO 80).
Interview data indicates that police organizations in western North Dakota have experienced significant changes due to rapid population growth from the oil boom. All of the organizations included in this study have increased in size. Nearly all of the agencies have adopted or are in the process of adopting advanced technology to help them become more efficient as they try to provide adequate service to their community. There have also been changes in organizational operations. Police activities are predominantly reactive in nature and occur at a rapid pace, leaving limited time for police officers to interact with citizens. In the past, officers had more time to spend with citizens.
The RQ2 focusses on changes occurring in the work environment of police organizations in western North Dakota as a result of rapid population growth. Police personnel responded to three questions that inquire about groups found within their work environment including: citizens, local businesses and schools, and other law enforcement agencies located in the Bakken region.
When asked how (if at all) their communities have changed due to the rapid population growth resulting from the oil boom, 60 percent of police personnel stated that their communities are busier due to the rapid population growth. There has been a significant increase in traffic due to the large trucks and machinery used by the oil companies. The increase in new residents has also contributed to traffic congestion in all eight research sites. Local businesses are experiencing an increase in customers, which results in longer lines and limited availability of goods and services:
The traffic is horrid now. The city has lost its small town feel. I don’t know everybody anymore and the city feels more like a big city. It seems as though everyone is stressed out all the time. People running from here to there and everywhere (PO 12).
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The people have changed. The traffic has changed. There are more people from different nationalities. There are people who are very rude. They don’t know how to drive. Customer service around here is poor because the people taking the service jobs are from out of town. These individuals are people who just simply want money. They don’t want to do a good job (PO 67).
Police personnel are busier with an increasing volume of calls for service from their growing communities. Officers reported that the rapid influx in population has residents calling the police more frequently than they have in the past. Several officers (41 percent) stated that the fear of crime in their communities has increased as the population in their community continues to grow. Residents no longer know other people in their communities the way that they did before the oil boom began. Police personnel described citizens in their communities as scared and more reliant on the local police:
In general, the community is more cautious now. For instance, people are usually out running in pairs instead of alone. There are fewer children out running around without their parents nearby. This fear has been generated by a combination of what people are experiencing and what they are seeing from the media (PO 9).
There is an “us versus them” mentality in town between the old residents and the new residents. The long timers feel the need to tell me “I am from here” with the hope that I will side with them. The new people tell me “I am not from here” as if they are telling me I should not ticket them. There is a sign at one of the busiest intersections in the city that reads “Communities that do not work together will die”[…] basically saying that we need to all get along as the oil is not going anywhere any time soon (PO 21).
Local businesses and schools are also part of the work environment of police organizations. When asked how (if at all) their agency’s interactions with local businesses and schools have changed as a result of the rapid population growth, most (81 percent) police personnel reported that their interactions with schools and local businesses has changed in recent years. Interactions with local businesses and schools are now primarily reactive due to the high volume of calls for service. This reactive interaction is different from the proactive, informal interactions that used to occur frequently among police, local businesses and schools. Over one-third (39 percent) of police personnel said that their agencies have had to stop or reduce their level of participation in community-building activities because there is not enough time:
The interaction with businesses and schools has changed. The relationship between the police and local schools and businesses is strained because of officer availability. It used to be the case where the patrol day shift would go to the schools and in the evening to basketball games. That has not been done in years (PO 50).
We don’t do much with the schools. We have a DARE officer though. We don’t have time to stop and chat with people, even normal people. Normal people are those who have been in the community a long time. I don’t have time to shake hands and kiss babies. Occasionally, I will treat locals like scumbags because I am always dealing with so many losers. Sometimes when I deal with normal people, I will thank them for being normal because I appreciate dealing with normal people (PO 78).
Nearly half (40 percent) of police personnel reported that they have fewer interactions with local schools. In contrast, one-third (33 percent) stated that they have more frequent interactions with local businesses now that the community is growing. Several
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officers (22 percent) stated that local businesses appreciate them more now than they had in the past. Local business owners are more concerned with crime due to the increase in population. Many business owners are taking action to prevent crimes from occurring by installing security systems or in some cases better security systems:
We have a lot of interaction with the local business owners. They need our help now more than ever. They always want to help and support local law enforcement, which is good. We also have a good relationship with schools. The oil companies are also very good to us. They will call us if they need a disgruntled employee removed. They are always very forthcoming when we are there looking for people with warrants. They know that we are here to help (PO 3).
Businesses rely on us more now and report things more often. Even mildly suspicious people will result in a call to the police. There was one incident where a guy was in a bar talking to a bartender bragging about being wanted for murder. In the past, the bartender would have ignored it as the ramblings of a drunk. Now, the bartender called the police instead. The man was not wanted for murder, he was wanted in a nearby city for a probation violation. Also, now most bartenders are women and they are more cautious with patrons (PO 83).
Another group found within the work environment of police organizations includes other law enforcement agencies. Police personnel discussed how (if at all) the rapid population growth from the oil boom has changed their interactions with nearby law enforcement agencies. Most (85 percent) officers said that their interactions with other police organizations are “better” or “good.” Law enforcement agencies in the region now provide more support and backup for other police agencies. A shortage of police personnel coupled with a dramatic increase in calls for service in all of the police organizations in this study result in increased collaboration among law enforcement agencies in the region. Some officers reported that there has been an improvement in communication and intelligence sharing among law enforcement agencies:
Way better communication. We also have more memorandums of understanding. We have to work with each other, and sometimes our work crosses jurisdictional boundaries. We also assist others without being compensated. We deal with other places and their problems, and they deal with problems that come from our area. We are very close with the sheriff’s department, another nearby local police agency, and the ambulance. We are also close with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The lines of communication are much more open, not like before. Essentially, this is because we have to be. It is out of necessity (PO 14).
We get along amazingly well. There is an informal network that exists. We have reciprocal agreements where we try to help each other so we can save our agencies both time and money. All agencies have had an increase in jail cell occupants, so cooperation is very important (PO 25).
Interview data shows that there have been many changes occurring in the work environment of police organizations in western North Dakota as a result of the rapid population growth. Police personnel are responding to an unprecedented number of calls for service in the Bakken region. The increasing number of service calls has changed the frequency and type of interaction police have with local schools and businesses. There are fewer interactions with schools, and most interactions are now reactive in nature. The working relationship among police organizations in the Bakken region has become more collaborative and symbiotic as most organizations are dealing with a lack of personnel.
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The RQ3 examines the impact of rapid population growth on resources within police organizations. When police personnel were asked how (if at all) the rapid population growth from the oil boom has affected their agency’s resources, nearly half (48 percent) stated that resources have been “stretched thin” or “drained” because of the influx in population. Several officers (38 percent) reported that their agency needs to hire more officers to help respond to the increasing volume of service calls. Hiring additional officers has been difficult because the cost of living in the Bakken region is expensive and the availability of affordable housing is limited. More than one-third (35 percent) of the officers said that their agency needs additional training and space (such as bigger jails and police headquarters). The lack of training (in general), abbreviated training, and allowing people with little experience to train new officers is compromising officer safety:
We are definitely down on resources: people and vehicles. We can only add people so fast. There are only so many field-training officers. The field-training officers that we have right now only have a few years of experience themselves. They are training other people, which is not good. They have shortened the field-training program too. If you can manage the first task, then you move on. Trainers look to see if we can multi-task. If we can, that is good enough for them (PO 20).
The jail is always full. We have contracts with other counties to house prisoners but we do not have a lot of extra space. Many prisoners are released on personal recognizance. We use the 24/7 program now which requires prisoners to report to the sheriff’s office twice a day for breath tests. Many of these prisoners skip out and they end up generating a warrant. Our warrant list has grown a lot (PO 83).
Police personnel also discussed ways that their organizations compensate for the lack of resources. Some officers (30 percent) said that their agencies compensate by having officers work overtime. The staffing shortage results in officers taking very limited time off and sometimes are not able to use their sick days. Others (23 percent) commented that their agencies have tried to hire more people; however, it is difficult to recruit people to work in the region due to the high cost of living:
There are no sick days. There is no overtime. Normal shifts for most people are 18-22 hours long. Those are normal shifts for us. More personnel would really help with this. Sick days are hard to manage. If I am sick, and if there is nobody to come in for me, I still have to answer calls. I will do that, whether I am vomiting or not (PO 11).
The chief asked for, and the city bought into the chief’s request for five to six new officers. Even though the spots were granted the department is unable to fill those spots. Also, because of the increased incidents that include alcohol, the department has issued alcohol sensors to all officers to make things more efficient (PO 56).
Some officers (20 percent) said that their agencies have not done anything to compensate for the lack of resources. Their supervisors advise them to simply forge ahead and work with the resources that are available to them. Officer burnout and fatigue compound the problem of staffing shortages as many officers leave their positions. Officers also expressed concern about officer safety because backup provided by officers within their agency was not always available. In some cases, the only backup available to them comes from other law enforcement agencies in the region (if they are available). In an effort to be more efficient, officers said that they use more discretion when responding to service calls:
We don’t. We fight through it. We bitch to each other as we work together on the streets. I believe that it is unsafe to work these streets because there are too few officers. I feel uncomfortable saying that, but I am being honest. There are calls where there should be two or three people
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responding, and only one person can show up. That means getting back-up to a serious call would take a long time due to traffic. That, of course, increases officer risk (PO 6).
“Just shut up and do it.” “Just do what you can.” “Make it work.” “Get your paperwork done.” These are all things that I hear from my supervisors. Officers end up looking away from minor crimes and traffic offenses because we don’t have time. You are going to screw your shift if you get involved in minor things. The detectives are pushing cases back to patrol officers to investigate because they can’t work them all. This isn’t their job and they don’t have time to do these follow-up investigations. Many officers don’t want to do follow-ups and it is can be frustrating (PO 76).
Some additional coping tactics mentioned by police personnel include agencies offering housing incentives and increased pay to attract and retain officers; applying for state and federal grants to get additional resources; donations from the community and oil companies located in their communities; and adopting technology for greater efficiency. The lack of resources has led to police organizations making operational changes in order to adequately provide services to the public.
Conclusions Findings from the current study reflect those found in earlier studies of policing in energy boomtowns. Similar to the findings of Taft (1981) and Ruddell (2011), rapid population growth in western North Dakota has led to changes in the size and operations of police organizations. All of the police organizations in this study have increased the number of sworn positions in order to respond to the increasing demands for service from the public. Taft (1981) and Covey and Menard (1984) both reported that police organizations in their energy boomtowns adopted new technology in an effort to become more efficient. Nearly all of the police organizations in the current study have adopted (or are in the process of adopting) new technology or equipment after the oil boom began in 2008. Covey and Menard (1984) found that some police agencies improved their method of record keeping after the population began to increase in their communities. It has only been recently that the smallest police agencies in the current study have implemented (or are in the process of implementing) computer systems to record calls for police service, arrest statistics, and other important information. The improved means of record keeping allows police chiefs and sheriffs to generate statistics revealing any increase or decrease in police activities. The statistical data were used to support requests for additional resources from the local and state governments.
Covey and Menard (1984) revealed that rapid population growth resulted in changes in police operations; specifically, that police interactions with citizens had become more reactive and formal. Police personnel interviewed for the current study reported that their patrol activities are more reactive than they were during pre-boom years, and that they no longer use an informal approach when they encounter citizens. The formal police-citizen interactions occur now because police personnel are no longer likely to know citizens in the community due to the rapid population growth.
Most of the existing literature centered on policing in energy boomtowns describes changes that occur within the work environment of police organizations (Covey and Menard, 1984; Ruddell, 2011; Taft, 1981). The current study found that the work environment of police organizations in western North Dakota has undergone significant changes. All of the research sites are experiencing unprecedented increases in population. This population of new residents
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consists primarily of people moving to North Dakota from other states. The influx of out-of-state residents has led to police personnel perceiving an increase in the level of danger associated with their job. The rapid increase in population and changes to population composition (more diversity, more male residents, more people moving in from other states) have changed the work environment of police organizations in western North Dakota, and in turn, has changed the way that police organizations are structured and function.
Contingency theorists argue that organizational change occurs when an organization makes changes to adapt to changing conditions in its external environment (Donaldson, 1987; Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967). The rapid population growth in western North Dakota had led to changes within communities, and in turn, has required police agencies to adapt to rapidly changing work environments. Changes in the external environment can lead to alterations in organizational structure, such as a change in organizational size (number of employees) and complexity (Blau and Schoenherr, 1971). All of the police agencies featured in the current study have significantly increased the number of sworn positions, and some have implemented specialized positions (i.e. SWAT, investigations, drug task force) in response to their changing communities.
Organizations dealing with turbulent environments are more likely to adopt new technology or innovative programs in an effort to return to a good “fit” with their external environment (Dewar and Hage, 1978; Donaldson, 1995). An organization’s ability to fit into its external environment is important, as a good “fit” leads to greater organizational performance and increased organizational efficiency (Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967; Van de Ven and Drazin, 1985). Organizations that do not make changes to better “fit” into their external environment will likely be ineffective and inefficient. There is some evidence that police agencies in western North Dakota are currently experiencing a bad “fit” with their external environment. A turbulent external environment and lack of personnel are forcing police agencies to change their policing practices (more reactive). Most of the police agencies in this study have adopted (or are currently adopting) technology to become more efficient. Technology also aids in systematically recording police activities. The records detailing an increase in police activities are used to demonstrate need for additional resources from the local and state governments. Police organizations in western North Dakota must secure additional resources (specifically personnel) in order to get back into a good “fit” with their external environment.
Resource dependency theory contends that organizations are dependent on resources found within their external environment in order to thrive or survive. Organizations make structural and/or procedural changes during times of uncertainty to increase the likelihood that resources continue to be available (Donaldson, 1995; Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978). Organizations have to demonstrate need when they request additional resources from sources found within their external environment. Some organizations will partner with other like organizations to acquire more resources. Police agencies in the current study are participating in an exchange of resources with other law enforcement agencies in the region – they are sharing resources in an effort to properly function and survive in a rapidly changing external environment.
Census data shows that North Dakota’s population has increased by 7.6 percent since the 2010 Census. If the state continues to growth at this pace, its population will reach one million by 2027 (Tran, 2014). This means that communities located in the Bakken region of western North Dakota will continue to experience unprecedented
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population growth well into the future. It is critical that local and state governments provide police organizations the resources needed to adequately serve their communities and maintain a high quality of life for its residents.
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About the authors Thorvald O. Dahle is a Doctoral Student, Instructor, and Teaching Assistant in Criminal Justice at the North Dakota State University in Fargo. His research interests include policing and issues regarding ethics, race, gender, and effectiveness. He has published in Police Quarterly, Race and Justice, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, and the Law Enforcement Executive Forum. He earned a Master’s Degree in public and human service administration from the Minnesota State University Moorhead. He spent 24 years in law enforcement, including serving as a Chief of Police.
Dr Carol A. Archbold is a Professor of Criminal Justice at the North Dakota State University (NDSU) in Fargo, North Dakota. She was recently named the Walter F. and Verna Gehrts Endowed Professor at the NDSU. Her research interests include women in policing, police and race, and police misconduct/accountability/liability. She has published papers in various policing and criminal justice journals. Dr Archbold is the author of Police Accountability, Risk Management and Legal Advising (LFB Scholarly Publishing, 2004); Women and Policing in America: Classic and Contemporary Readings with Dorothy Moses Schulz and Kimberly Hassell (Aspen Publishing, 2011); and Policing: A Text/Reader (Sage Publications, 2012). Recently, she Co-Authored The New World of Police Accountability, 2nd edition (Sage Publications, 2013) with Samuel Walker. Dr Carol A. Archbold is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: carol.archbold@ndsu.edu
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