Paper Requirement
Chapter 11: Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence
Question
What are some of the stereotypes about teens? They’re lazy, egocentric, naïve… but what about good stereotypes too? They’re hopeful, optimistic, energetic, creative. What kind of teen were you?
Learning Goals Learning Goal 1: Discuss the nature of adolescence. A. Discuss research on images of adolescence and how these images relate to public attitudes. Learning Goal 2: Describe the changes involved in puberty, as well as changes in the brain
and sexuality during adolescence. A. Define and discuss causes and characteristics of puberty and the importance of timing. B. Highlight changes in brain functioning, discuss the structures that are more active, and
explain the process of pruning during adolescence. C. Describe and discuss adolescent sexuality. Learning Goal 3: Identify adolescent problems related to health, substance use and abuse,
and eating disorders. A. Discuss the development of healthy eating, sleeping, and exercise habits in adolescence. B. Describe substance use and abuse during adolescence and the role of development,
parents, and peers. C. Discuss the research findings regarding adolescent eating disorders and each one’s
characteristics. Learning Goal 4: Explain cognitive changes in adolescence. A. Discuss Piaget’s formal operational stage. B. Define and discuss adolescent egocentrism, the imaginary audience, and new research
regarding the personal fable. C. Describe information processing changes during adolescence. Learning Goal 5: Summarize some key aspects of how schools influence adolescent
development. A. Describe the transition from middle school to junior high school. B. Discuss suggestions for improving the effectiveness of schools. C. Describe the characteristics and concerns of high schools. D. Explain the benefits of extracurricular activities on adolescent development. E. Define and discuss service learning and its benefits.
The Nature of Adolescence
G. Stanley Hall (1904): adolescence is a time of “storm and stress” More recent research has found that this is not necessarily true Most adolescents successfully negotiate their path from childhood to adulthood Negative stereotypes of adolescence are common but are not always accurate
What was your adolescence like? A time of storm or stress? Usually I only have about 5-10 people per class reporting having this stormy stressful experience; the rest usually report getting through things well overall.
Physical Changes
What are some that you remember? Hair in weird places, voice deepening, breast development… there’s a lot happening for boys and girls!
Puberty
Puberty: a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that occur primarily during early adolescence. More of a process, not just one single event.
Menarche is a girl’s first menstruation. Mine was at 10 on the day of my birthday party! I remember feeling like my mom was upset because she was inconvenienced from the day of planning the party. We went to the drugstore and I remember us staring at a huge wall full of pads and tampons. She bought a huge box of Always with Wings pads and they fit like a diaper! I remember feeling ashamed and confused and badly that I started when I did. I didn’t feel like it was a good experience.
Marked weight and height gains Growth spurt occurs about 2 years earlier for girls than boys Girls increase in height 3.5 inches per year, boys about 4 inches
Pubic hair growth Facial and chest hair growth in males Breast growth in females Sexual maturity
Hormonal Changes: Hormones: chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands and carried throughout
the body by the bloodstream
Endocrine system’s role involves the interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary glands, and gonads
Hypothalamus: brain structure involved with eating and sex
Pituitary gland: endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates other glands
Gonads: testes in males, ovaries in females Concentration of testosterone and estrogen increases
Hormones may contribute to psychological development in adolescence Behavior and moods can affect hormones
Stress, eating patterns, exercise, sexual activity, tension, and depression
Link between hormones and behavior is complex
Timing and Variations: Average age of menarche has declined significantly
Improved nutrition and health. Girls are also eating more fast food and gaining more weight at earlier ages.
You have to weigh enough to have your period. It’s not hormones in chicken causing earlier menarches.
For boys, pubertal sequence typically begins from age 10–13 ½ and ends from 13–17
For girls, menarche typically begins between the ages of 9 and 15
Preoccupation with body image is especially strong in early adolescence Girls are generally less happy with their bodies than boys and become more
dissatisfied over time
Boys typically become more satisfied as they move through puberty
Research on Body Image in Adolescence: Appearance
Physical and mental health problems
Body art is becoming more popular among adolescents Early and Late Maturation: Boys:
Early-maturing boys view themselves more positively and have more successful peer relations
Late maturing boys report a stronger sense of identity in their 30s In general, early maturation seems to be better
Girls: Early-maturing girls are more likely to smoke, drink, be depressed, have an
eating disorder, struggle for earlier independence, have older friends, date earlier and have earlier sexual experiences
Adolescent Body Image and the Media
On the covers of the magazine, what are the types of articles advertised inside? What types of differences can you observe in magazines that cater to adolescent boys vs.
adolescent girls?
In what ways do these magazines influence body image? What role might the media plays any role in the development of adolescent eating
disorders?
Girl’s Mags
Boy’s Mags
Teen Role Model?
The Brain
The adolescent brain undergoes significant structural changes Corpus callosum thickens; improves adolescents’ ability to process information Amygdala (handles processing of information about emotion) develops earlier
than the prefrontal cortex (involved in higher-level cognitive processes)
Adolescents are driven by strong emotions but have difficulty controlling these passions
At last we know—at least in part—what accounts for some adolescent risk-taking and crazy behaviors. Their brains are still developing. In fact, the development is taking place in a very critical part of the brain associated with rational thinking and decision-making—the frontal lobes. What’s more, the emotional part of the brain—the limbic system—is particularly active (thanks, in part, to what is often referred to as “raging hormones”) while the thinking, planning, deciding part of the brain has not developed to the point that they have full control over their emotions.
How do we know this? Through brain imaging techniques that now allow us to see, in real time, brain activity while people are performing different activities. For instance, research shows that when processing emotional information, the teen’s limbic system is more active than the front lobes.
This research has found an interesting application in the legal system. Legislators and advocates are using the research to argue for changes in laws affecting teenagers. For instance, statistics have long shown that teenagers are much more prone to be involved in a motor vehicle accident. Pulling together the research on brain functioning with what we know about peer influence, some states have put limits on the number of passengers a teenage driver can have. The reasoning? Due to brain immaturity, teens
may be less able to deflect peer pressure to take risks when driving—and the more peers present in the car, the greater the pressure.
Another area in which this research is being used is in laws that allow teenagers charged with serious crimes to be tried as adults. Is that fair, advocates ask, when they still may have the mind of a child—be unable to control their behavior in certain highly charged settings? Psychologists for years have known that teenagers don’t have the cognitive understanding of adults when it comes to participating in trials. Now there is brain research to back it up.
Adolescent Sexuality
Adolescent sexuality is a time of exploration, experimentation, sexual fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity
Every society gives some attention to adolescent sexuality In the U.S., sexual culture is widely available to adolescents Television and other media contribute to the sexual culture
Developing a Sexual Identity Involves:
Learning to manage sexual feelings Developing new forms of intimacy Learning skills to regulate sexual behavior
Sexual Identity Includes: Activities Interests Styles of behavior Indication of sexual orientation
Gay male and lesbian youth have diverse patterns of initial attraction, often have bisexual attractions, and may have physical or emotional attraction to same-sex individuals. I myself am bisexual and I’ve known this since I was in the first grade. I was out in high school, in a very conservative area, and was picked on a lot, primarily from teachers and administrators who would harass me about it, if you could imagine that! It was an odd experiencing being picked on by the people who were supposed to be protecting me. Visit trevorproject.org for more info on supporting LGBT teens.
Timing of sexual initiation varies by country, gender, and other socioeconomic characteristics
Percentages of sexually active young adolescents in the United States vary greatly
Male, African American, and inner-city adolescents report being the most sexually active; Asian American adolescents are the least sexually active
Early sexual activity is linked with risky behaviors (drug use, delinquency, school-related problems)
Low parental monitoring is linked with early initiation of sexual activity, more sexual partners, and less condom use
Dramatic increase in oral sex during adolescence Considered a casual, recreational activity by many Belief that oral sex is not really sex Belief that it is likely to be safer than sexual intercourse
Adolescents are increasing their use of contraceptives Some still use contraceptives inconsistently
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are contracted primarily through sexual contact
U.S. has one of the highest adolescent pregnancy rates in the industrialized world Difference exists despite the fact that U.S. adolescents are no more sexually
active
Adolescent pregnancy creates health risks for baby and mother Low birth weight, neurological problems, childhood illness Mothers often drop out of school and typically do not catch up economically
It is often not pregnancy alone that leads to negative consequences Adolescent moms are more likely to come from low-SES backgrounds Many were not good students before they became pregnant
Some adolescent mothers have positive outcomes The National Center for Health Statistics Web site is a gold mine of interesting statistics: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ One major concern surrounding teenage pregnancy is the issue of prenatal care. Teenagers are significantly less likely to receive adequate prenatal care, they are more likely to smoke, and they are less likely to gain sufficient weight during the pregnancy. These behaviors influence the babies’ health (increased risk for low birthweight, long-term disabilities, and infant mortality). Another concern is the issue of cognitive readiness for parenting. Adolescents who were not cognitively ready for parenting were more likely to experience serious parenting stress and less likely to engage in responsive parenting (Sommer & others, 1993). It is important that students understand that the negative consequences associated with teenage pregnancy are not necessarily the result of teen pregnancy, rather the negative consequences are associated with preexisting conditions or background characteristics of the teenager. Coley and Chase-Lansdale (1998) reviewed research to support this conceptual idea. Individuals who live in poverty and have lower educational aspirations are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers. Individuals in low-income environments with lower educational aspirations are more likely to live in poverty as an adult, have lower status jobs, and have children with lower cognitive capabilities. Thus, it is important to examine these preexisting characteristics when examining the consequences of teenage pregnancy
Teen Pregnancy Pact (June 2008)
GLOUCESTER, MASS.-
Mr. Sullivan told Time that nearly half of the expecting students, none over 16, were involved. Mr. Sullivan said students were coming to the school clinic multiple times to get pregnancy tests, and “seemed more upset when they weren't pregnant than when they were.”
Some of the girls reacted to the news they were pregnant with high fives and plans for baby showers, Mr. Sullivan said. One of the fathers “is a 24-year-old homeless guy,” he told the magazine.
He said the girls are generally “girls who lack self-esteem and have a lack of love in their life.”
Last month, two officials at the high school health centre resigned to protest the resistance from the local hospital to the confidential distribution of contraceptives. The hospital administers the state money that funds the clinic.
Are low self-esteem and lack of opportunity a contributor to teen pregnancy?
What are other contributing factors?
Sex Education in School
How many remember receiving sexual education in school? What did it consist of? I went to public school but had abstinence only education.
I never learned about “protection”, but rather the reproductive organs and the like. It wasn’t very useful and obviously wasn’t working that well judging by all of the girls that were pregnant in my school.
Did your parents ever have “the sex talk” with you? How might your parent’s generational status or culture have influenced whether
or not they talked with you about sex? I think my mom being a single mom who was Filipina American Catholic really played into the cultural, religious, and gender norms against discussing sex with me.
Adolescent Health
Many factors related to poor health habits and early death in adulthood begin during adolescence:
Poor nutrition. Kids are eating sodas and Hot Cheetos for lunch a lot of the time. They are often not encouraged to make healthier food choices.
Lack of exercise Inadequate sleep
Adolescents typically need about 9 hours of sleep Adolescents’ biological clocks shift as they get older Conflicts with school starting times
Leading Causes of Death in Adolescence: Accidents
Typically motor vehicle accidents A large percentage are due to alcohol or drug impairment
Homicide More common among African American males
Suicide
Substance Use and Abuse
United States has one of the highest rates of adolescent drug use of any industrialized nation
Adolescent alcohol and cigarette consumption has declined in recent years Use of painkillers (Vicodin, Oxycontin) is increasing. Visit projectpurple.org for more info
on Chris Herren’s program to help curb teen drug abuse. I went to Fresno State with Chris and he was a star basketball player who was addicted to many drugs, even once he became an NBA star. Check out his documentary on Netflix called Unguarded (one of the 30 for 30 ESPN documentaries. It’s very powerful).
Parents, peers, and social support can play important roles in preventing adolescent drug abuse
Eating Disorders
Research Findings: Body Image:
Adolescents are dissatisfied with their bodies Low self-esteem and social support, weight-related teasing, and pressure to
lose weight
Parenting: Healthy eating patterns and exercise by parents increased adolescents’
healthy habits
Sexual Activity: Sexually active girls were most likely to be dieting
Role Models and the Media: Girls who were motivated to consume media with thin, female images were
more likely to report dissatisfaction with their bodies
Anorexia Nervosa: an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation
Three Main Characteristics: Weighing less than 85% of what is considered normal for a person’s age and
height
Having an intense fear of gaining weight that does not decrease with weight loss
Having a distorted image of their body shape
Typically begins in the early to middle teen years, often following an episode of dieting
10 times more likely to occur in females than males
Anorexia Nervosa (continued): Most anorexics are White females from well-educated, middle- to upper-income
families, and are competitive and high achieving
Linked to problems in family functioning Fashion image in the U.S. contributes to the incidence of anorexia
Bulimia Nervosa: eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern
Most bulimics: Are preoccupied with food Have an intense fear of becoming overweight Are depressed or anxious Have a distorted body image
Bulimics typically fall within a normal weight range
Adolescent Cognition
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage (age 11+): More abstract than concrete operational thought Increased verbal problem-solving ability Increased tendency to think about thought itself Thoughts of idealism and possibilities More logical thought
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: involves creating a hypothesis and deducing its implications
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory: Much more individual variation than Piaget envisioned Education in science and math promotes the development of formal operational
thinking
Cognitive development is likely not as stage-like as Piaget thought Children can be trained to reason at a higher stage; some cognitive abilities
emerge earlier than Piaget thought
Piaget developed the notion of children as active, constructive thinkers and developed many concepts that are still used today
Adolescent Egocentrism
Adolescent Egocentrism: Heightened self-consciousness of adolescents
Imaginary Audience: adolescents’ belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are
Personal Fable: involves a sense of uniqueness and invincibility “Are you kidding me, I won’t get pregnant”, “No one understands me, particularly my parents. They have no idea what I am feeling”.
Invincibility attitudes are associated with reckless behavior Drug use Suicide Having unprotected sex
Information Processing
Improvement in executive functioning Reasoning, making decisions, monitoring thinking critically, monitoring one’s
cognitive process
Individuals become more competent decision-makers with age Most people make better decisions when calm Unfortunately, adolescents have a tendency to be emotionally intense
Cognitive changes that improve critical thinking skills include: Increased speed, automaticity, and capacity of information-processing More breadth of content knowledge in a variety of domains Increased ability to construct new combinations of knowledge A greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies or procedures for
applying or obtaining knowledge Schools
Transition to Middle or Junior High School: Takes place at a time when many changes (individual, family, and school) are
occurring at once
Puberty and concerns about body image Emergence of formal operational thought Increased responsibility; decreased dependence on parents Change to a larger, more impersonal school structure Change from one teacher to many teachers Change to a larger, more heterogeneous set of peers
Increased focus on achievement and performance
Top-Dog Phenomenon: moving from being the oldest, biggest, and most powerful students in elementary school to being the youngest, smallest, and least powerful students in middle or junior high school
Positive Aspects of Transition: More likely to feel grown up More subjects from which to select More opportunities to spend time with peers Increased independence from direct parental monitoring Challenged intellectually by academic work
Effective Schools for Young Adolescents: Develop smaller communities that lessen impersonality of middle schools Lower student–counselor ratios to 10-to-1 Involve parents and community leaders Develop new curricula Integrate several disciplines in a flexible
curriculum
Have more student health and fitness programs Help students who need public health care
Expectations for success and standards for learning are often too low Many students graduate with inadequate reading, writing, and mathematical skills
Many go on to college and must enroll in remediation classes there
Students who drop out often do not have skills that allow them to obtain decent jobs or be informed citizens
Dropout rates have declined over last 50 years Dropout rates are highest among minorities
Example: Phoenix, AZ
The National Center for Education Statistics reported that nationally, American Indian students have a dropout rate of 35.5%, about twice the national average and the highest dropout rate of any United States ethnic or racial group sited. Among minority populations in Arizona, Native American students have the highest dropout rates (16.1%) compared to the lowest dropout rate (3.7%) of White and Asian Students (Arizona Minority Student Success Report, 2003).
Most Effective Programs: Provide early reading programs, tutoring, counseling, and mentoring Emphasize the creation of caring environments and relationships Use block scheduling Offer community-service opportunities
Service Learning: a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community
More effective when: Students have a choice in activities Students are given opportunities to reflect on participation
Benefits of Service Learning: Higher grades in school Increased goal-setting Higher self-esteem Improved sense of being able to make a difference for others Increased likelihood that they will serve as volunteers in the future
Here are some good websites that relate to topics in Ch 11: Adolescent Brains Are Works in Progress http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/work/adolescent.html National Center for Health Statistics http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ National Eating Disorder Information Centre http://www.nedic.ca/ Teen Life http://www.dmoz.org/Kids_and_Teens/Teen_Life/ Teenage Pregnancy http://www.teenbreaks.com/ Video Games: Research, Ratings and Recommendations http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-2/video.htm