Foundational Learning Theories

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Editorial

Learning Theories: Behaviorism Kevin R Clark, EdD, R.T.(R)(QM)

I n its simplest form, learning is defined as gaining knowledge through study, teaching, instruction, or experience.1 Interestingly, learning is described and viewed differently by theorists, researchers, and

practitioners who have spent time investigating and experimenting in the educational psychology field.1,2 The differences in how educational theorists believe individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge result- ed in the development of multiple learning theories.1-3 Based on the context of the theorists’ work and other factors at the time of investigation, these theories explain how learning occurs, what internal or external factors inf luence learning, how memory affects learn- ing, and how transfer of knowledge occurs.1-3 In addi- tion, the roles of the instructors and learners are described according to each theory of learning. A basic understanding of the various learning theories is essen- tial for educators who strive to lead a classroom that is conducive to learning and success.

The ideas of behaviorism date back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries when John Watson, an American psychologist, believed the general public would accept and recognize the new philosophy of psy- chology as a true science only if it involved processes of objective observation and scientific measurement.1 This notion of detailed observation and measurement became central to the work of behaviorists.1

Behaviorism emphasizes that learning occurs when an individual responds favorably to some type of

external stimuli.1-4 Behaviorism sometimes is referred to as the stimulus-response theory.1 For example, when presented with a math f lashcard showing the equation 6 3 8, the learner responds with the answer 48. The equation is the stimulus, and the answer is the associ- ated response.2 Essential elements with behaviorism include the stimulus, the response, and the association between these 2 elements.2 Of particular importance is how the association between the stimulus and the response is made, strengthened, and maintained.2

Behaviorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviors. Behaviorists do not emphasize thinking or other mental activities as a part of the learning process because such variables are not observable behaviors.1-4 Although the behaviorism theory discounts any mental activity, other educational theorists considered these processes to be a vital part of learning and cognition, which resulted in the develop- ment of other theories of learning.1,4 Behaviorists do not address memory and how new behaviors or changes in behaviors are stored or recalled for future use.2 Behaviorists refer to this type of learning, where a reac- tion is made to a particular stimulus, as conditioning.1 Two main types of conditioning include Pavlov’s classi- cal conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, noticed that dogs

salivated every time they ate or saw food and believed

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bowling alley.1 Skinner made generalizations about his findings with rats and pigeons to humans.1 In addition, he noted that operant conditioning also worked in a negative way: stopping a behavior from occurring by punishing it.1,3

Reinforcement and Punishment Key aspects of operant conditioning include rein-

forcement and punishment, both of which can be positive or negative. Reinforcement refers to anything that has the effect of strengthening a particular behav- ior for it to occur again.1,3 Positive reinforcement is the addition of a rewarding stimulus to get the behavior to happen again (eg, rewarding learners for making a high grade on an exam in hopes they study harder for future assessments and score high again). Negative reinforce- ment is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to get the behavior to continue (eg, students learning the rules to solve a particular problem so their instructor quits nag- ging them about the importance of it). The unpleasant behavior of the instructor’s nagging is removed when students learn the rules, solve the problem correctly, and continue the action so the nagging does not return.

Conversely, punishment refers to anything that has an effect of lessening or discouraging a particular behavior so that it does not occur again.1,3 Positive pun- ishment is the addition of an unpleasant stimulus to get the behavior to stop; any type of disciplinary action is considered positive punishment. Negative punishment is the removal of a rewarding stimulus to get the behav- ior to stop (eg, not offering extra credit opportunities in hopes the behavior stops so that the learners can receive these beneficial opportunities in the future). Skinner maintained that rewards and punishments control most human behaviors.1-3

In addition to Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner, other theorists were associated with the behaviorist move- ment. The Table summarizes their contributions to the theory of behaviorism.

Implications in Teaching and Learning Behaviorists believe learning begins when a cue

or stimulus from the environment is presented, and the learner reacts to the stimulus with some type of response.1-3 Those responses are reinforced or punished,

he could condition the dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.1 Initially, Pavlov sounded a bell at the time food was presented to the dogs and repeated this process frequently.1 Eventually, the sound of the bell became an indication to the dogs that food was about to be pre- sented, and they responded by salivating at the sound of the bell regardless of whether food was presented.1 This type of reinforcement of a natural ref lex or some involuntary behavior that occurs as a response to a par- ticular stimulus is called classical conditioning.1 Pavlov was able to condition the dogs to salivate in response to the sound of the bell.

Pavlov identified 4 stages of classical conditioning: acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimina- tion.1 The acquisition stage is the initial learning of the conditioned response (the dogs salivating at the sound of the bell).1 Pavlov believed the conditioned response would not remain indefinitely, so he used the term extinction to describe the disappearance of a con- ditioned response.1 Pavlov demonstrated extinction by repeatedly sounding the bell without presenting food to the dogs.1 The final 2 stages, generalization and dis- crimination, are opposites and explain how behaviorists believe knowledge is transferred within learners.2 The generalization stage implies that a conditioned response might occur with similar stimuli without further train- ing (the dogs salivating at the sound of something similar to a bell).1 In contrast, the discrimination stage indicates that a conditioned response might occur with 1 stimulus but not with another (the dogs not salivating at the sound of something similar to a bell).1

Operant Conditioning BF Skinner, a psychologist working in the United

States in the 1930s, established the theory of oper- ant conditioning: a process of reinforcing a voluntary behavior by rewarding it.1,3 Studying the behaviors of rats, Skinner used a device (now called a Skinner box) that contained a lever.1 W henever the rats pressed the lever (an action Skinner considered normal, random, and voluntary), a pellet of food was presented.1 As the food rewards continued during the repetition of the action, the rats learned that they had to press the lever to be fed.1 Skinner also used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and to roll a ball down a mini

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Editorial Learning Theories: Behaviorism

the reinforcement of appropriate classroom behaviors, which can create a more orderly classroom environment that is conducive to learning and success for all.1

Learning Activities Classroom learning activities connected to the

behaviorism theory include1-3: � lecturing � recalling facts � defining and illustrating concepts � applying explanations � participating in rote learning (ie, memorization

based on repetition) � completing drill and practice exercises � establishing classroom management policies � using rewards and punishments

Implications in Medical Imaging Education In medical imaging education, lecturing is a domi-

nant approach to presenting information because of the complexity of the content. Considering time man- agement issues and restrictions in higher education, lecturing affords instructors an opportunity to pres- ent a large amount of information to a large audience. Often, medical imaging students memorize some of the content presented and recall that knowledge during an exam. The role of repetition aids in the learning of new and challenging content. Medical imaging students benefit from drill and practice exercises when working with formulas, including the Inverse-Square Law, the milliampere-seconds–distance compensation formula,

and this process is repeated so that the responses become automatic.3 Ultimately, the change in behav- ior indicates learning has occurred.3 As revealed, behaviorism has little regard for mental processes or understanding and, therefore, does not prepare learners for problem-solving or critical-thinking skills.1-3

The instructor plays a dominant role in behaviorism by leading the learning environment, using positive and negative reinforcement to shape learners’ behaviors, and presenting the content.1 With behaviorism, learn- ers are described as passive individuals who voluntarily respond to external stimuli.1 Other behaviorist implica- tions in teaching and learning include1:

� creating procedures and expectations to manage the classroom

� using rewards as incentives for learners to work hard and behave

� using punishments (eg, loss of privileges or with- holding of rewards) effectively and sparingly to change learners’ behaviors

Critics of behaviorism argue that rewards can belittle or demean a learning experience and, therefore, should be used with caution.1 Often, rewards can evoke feel- ings of unfairness or competition, and some learners might become distracted from the real issue involved in completing a task or learning new material.1 Using a rewards system or giving 1 learner increased attention might have a detrimental effect on others in the class or cause them to feel isolated.1 Not surprisingly, rewards do not always lead to higher-quality work; however, using a behaviorist approach, rewards can result in

Table

Key Theorists and Their Contributions to Behaviorism1

Theorists Contribution

Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning

Edward Thorndike Connectionism (emphasized the role of experience in the strengthening and weakening of stimulus-response connections)

John Watson Scientific objectivity; Law of frequency (the more frequent a stimulus and response occur in association with each other, the stronger the habit will become)

Edwin Guthrie Contiguity (the same response to a stimulus most likely will occur over and over again during repeated expo- sures)

BF Skinner Operant conditioning

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and the grid conversion formula, as well as calculations involving skin dose. Medical imaging instructors ben- efit from using a behaviorist approach by implementing a classroom management plan to lead a classroom con- ducive to learning and success.

Conclusion The theory of behaviorism can be illustrated by

the adage, “practice makes perfect.” Behaviorists see learning as an observable change in behavior as a result of experience and repetition. This stimulus-response theory makes no attempt to assess the mental processes necessary for learners to acquire, retain, and recall information. The change in behavior is simply achieved through a conditioning process using reinforcement and punishment. Even though little importance is placed on mental activity, concept formation, or under- standing, there is a place for behaviorism in today’s classrooms, especially in medical imaging education, in the areas of rote learning and classroom management.

Kevin R Clark, EdD, R.T.(R)(QM), is assistant professor and graduate coordinator for the School of Health Professions at The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston. He serves on the Radiologic Technology Editorial Review Board and can be reached at krclark@mdanderson.org.

References 1. Pritchard A. Behaviourism and the beginnings of theory. In:

Ways of Learning – Learning Theories and Learning Styles in the Classroom. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Routledge; 2014:6-17.

2. Ertmer PA, Newby TJ. Behaviorism, cognitivism, construc- tivism: comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Perform Improv Q. 2013;26(2):43-71. doi:10.1002/piq.21143.

3. Kelly J. Learning theories. The Peak Performance Center website. http://thepeakperformancecenter.com/education al-learning/learning/theories/. Published September 2012. Accessed June 10, 2017.

4. David L. Behaviorism. Learning Theories website. https:// www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html. Published January 31, 2007. Accessed June 10, 2017.

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