For chrisbenjamin - Final project

Overall you have some good information here. The main problems are research and references.  You have many sections that are a nice length, at least one half page, but some later sections are shorter and need more info and research.  The list of research sources you have is short and could easily be doubled. Aim for ten sources.  Also, you have many sections that have no research at all. Each section should have at least two or more references. Often times you mention a study but don't reference it.  Those need to be changed too.

Research Study Comparative Analysis

Introduction

Research Summaries

Over the years researchers have employed varying social psychological approaches when investigating psychological phenomena that impacts how people live, interact, and influence their environment. In the classic research study, Darley and Letane (1968) set out to investigate factors that influence bystander intervention in emergencies. To conceptualize their study, they begin by exploring different literature and how research on the same topic has been approached. To investigate this, the researchers formulated an experiment in which fifty-nine female and male students were subjected to an experiment in which a victim was given the opportunity to narrate his troubles and challenges, then finally simulate a seizure. A six minute period was used to time the allowable response with which a subject left her experimental cubicle and approached the experimental assistant at the end of the hall. The researchers took significant caution in ensuring that the subjects did not gain any prior knowledge that the experiment was simulated. This could have otherwise corrupted the integrity of the research. Based on the findings of the experiment, it was established that the number of bystanders that the subject perceived to be present had a major effect on the likelihood with which the subject would report the emergency (Darley & Latane, 1968). In conclusion, while this research did not find significant variations in interventions between male or female subjects, it was clear that the experiment created a conflict or state of indecision among subjects who did not intervene.

On the other hand, in the modern research study, Karakashian and colleagues examine the effect of shyness and fear of negative evaluation (FNE) on helping behavior (Karakashian, Walter, Christopher, & Lucas, 2006). The participants were 83 undergraduate students who were given the opportunity to complete three fundamental questionnaires; Cheek's revision of the 13-item Shyness Scale, the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale, and the Self-Monitoring Scale. Four questions were generated to evaluate participants’ stress before and after the experiment. They were then subjected to a scrambled word task. This research utilized two fundamental hypotheses. The first hypothesis stated that participants high in shyness or FNE would be less likely to help in the social condition. On the other hand, the second hypothesis stated that participants high in shyness or FNE would be equally as likely to help in the non-social condition as non-shy or low FNE participants in both the social and non-social condition (Karakashian, Walter, Christopher, & Lucas, 2006). Two more hypotheses were used. The findings of the research did not only reiterate the reliability of the three personality variable scales, but also accentuated the congruency between the two constructs. Conclusively, despite establishing that gender had a marginal effect on the subject variable, it was found that condition (social vs non-social) had a significant impact on helping behavior. This finding therefore renders this research consistent with others that have presented arguments aligned to this relationship.

Social Psychological Approach

Both studies utilized a social psychological approach known as the social cognitive approach. This approach involves examining how people process information and stimuli in their environment, process it, and use it to inform their behavior (Zimmerman, Boekarts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000). In each study, a group of subjects are exposed to a simulated experiment where they are practically fed with information regarding an emergency. How the subjects interpret and respond to the emergency is studied to evaluate factors that influence helping behavior.

Analysis of Studies and Past Research

Through an extensive literature review, the researchers in the classic study were able to establish a niche on which to focus their research. This was established by exploring the work of other scholars on the topic and identifying specific voids or weak points that have not been fully explored. In their findings, they institute a number of considerations that inform their research. It is from these considerations that they formulate the hypothesis; that the more bystanders to an emergency, the less likely, or more slowly, any one bystander will intervene to provide aid. To introduce the objective of their research, Karakashian and colleagues gathered different literature on the topic to establish a position for their research. Of unique importance was the use of the shyness and fear of negative evaluation, a model that had been extensively utilized by other scholars. To present proof of this fact, the researchers explored definitions, contexts, and statements of significance and reliability as presented by other scholars. This was important in making their research relevant and viable in exploring a common topic. They further explored research on helping behavior and its relations to the evaluation tool above.

Differing Approaches

While it is clear that these two studies inform each other with the concepts from the classical study taking precedence, there are many other research works that have been used in building a conceptual framework in each of them. However, it is the different approaches they use that clearly demonstrates how the field of social psychology has changed over time. The classical study is simple in structure and has used simple data analysis tools to establish and inference on the impact of a single variable on bystander helping behavior. In comparison, the modern study has combined multiple variables and utilized three advanced scales to measure the variables. This shows that the field of social psychology has evolved with better research tools to assist investigations as expressed in the different approaches in both studies.

Human Behavior

Research Trends

Research trends in social psychology are often influenced by social phenomena that take place in society and which are believed to have psychological significance. To begin with, the classical study begins by presenting a case where a young woman was stabbed to death in the middle of a street in a residential section of New York City. The fact that there were at least 38 people who witnessed the attack raised critical questions as to why none of the bystanders came out to help the victim. This clearly states that this research built its conceptual framework on realistic social issues that affected society. It is at this point that the researchers objectified the use of social psychological approaches to explain factors that influence intervention.

On the other hand, the modern study begins by expressing the extent to which research has covered shyness, fear of negative evaluation (FNE), and helping behavior as individual topics. It also admits, from analysis that very limited knowledge concerning how these constructs are interrelated is available. This means that the direction of this research is informed by the extensive effort put forward to examining shyness, fear of negative evaluation (FNE), and helping behavior and relations existing between them (Karakashian, Walter, Christopher, & Lucas, 2006). Each of these topics have a critical impact on the manner in which the modern society is designed or operates. It is therefore correct to state that this research was equally influenced by realistic situations of shyness, fear of negative evaluation, and helping behavior as they manifest in society. The fundamental difference between the studies regarding this point is that while the classical study acted in response to an overwhelming social psychological phenomena that no research study had explored before, the modern research was informed by research trends in the study of the three fundamental topics.

Influence on Human Behavior

It is of critical importance that an assessment is made of how the results and conclusions reached by the researchers in the studies may have influenced human behaviors once they were published and conveyed to the public. The classical study introduced research on the bystander effect for the very first time. This can be determined by the nature of the literature review conducted by the researcher. The scholar articles used to conceptualize the study did not directly refer to the bystander effect but rather explored sociological issues that present a framework on which the study can be designed. This means that when this research study was first published and conveyed to the public, it had the most significant impact on human behavior. People began to recognize that the number of people witnessing an emergency influence the likelihood that one would intervene and help the victim. There is a sense in which this realization led to internal conflicts in members of society whether or not to think about the number of people available in a situation before helping. This study challenged people to begin contemplating on how to help victims in cases of emergencies.

The modern study was a response to research trends on the bystander effect. Once it was published, it informed society that there is a relationship between shyness, fear of negative evaluation, and helping behavior. Studies in sociology highlight that when society is informed on particular matters affecting the behavior of individuals, they respond in accordance to its provisions. The social cognitive perspective used in both studies explore how information is processed and how patterns of thought influence behavior (Markus & Zajonc, 1985). It is from this understanding that the influence of this study on people can be expressed. As a result of the findings of this study, people were able to understand the main factors that lead to interventions or lack of participation in helping emergency victims.

Alignment with Established Research Trends

For people who are positively influenced by the findings of this study, they are able to overcome fear and the fear of negative evaluation to help victims of emergencies in society. On the other hand, those who are not able to help can explain and justify their behaviors as either shyness or that they feared being profiled negatively by other bystanders. Reliability for any research plays a vital role on how the information is received by the public. Society appreciates and relies on reliable studies to inform about changes happening in society. Both studies employed reliable data analytics, research methods, and review of relevant literature as required determinants that inform quality in any research process. As a result, each study was aligned to the established research trends of the time. A perfect example that demonstrates this is the statement of research limitations in the modern study, it identifies potential points of weakness that can be used to justify criticisms of the research. This is well in accordance with established research trends of the time.

Influence on Society

Benefits to Society

The fundamental objective of social and psychological research processes is to instigate social change and benefit society. There is one fundamental way in which both the classical and modern studies have benefited society. To begin with, anything that increases the knowledge base of society is beneficial. A knowledgeable society is best positioned to foster sustainable interaction with its environment. Therefore, society has benefited positively by gaining a better understanding of psychological issues that are deterministic of bystander intervention during emergencies. Second, each of the studies has utilized findings from their respective experiments to correct perspectives that have not been backed with concrete research evidence on the topic. A perfect example that proves this point is how the classical study corrects society on information that has been publicized but may not be true. It states that the present results create significant difficulties for one class of commonly given explanations for the failure of bystander intervention in actual emergencies as apathy or indifference. What this does is that it clarifies on a contentious topic where society is misinformed. This is a way in which this study helps society to establish the truth and embrace an ideology supported by scientific facts.

Negative Impact on Society

On the other hand, there is a way in which the studies influence the society negatively. Characteristically, the common topic investigated by this research points to a behavior in society that is considered to be negative. Human values should inform every bystander witnessing an event to intervene and help the victim. However, in this case, both studies present explanations that justify the reason as to why a bystander may fail to help an emergency victim. The moral expectation should be that informative research must encourage society to embrace what is positive, that which will bring maximum gain to members of society (Schwarzer, 2008).

Application to Everyday Life

There are many possible ways that the results or conclusions of the studies could be applied to everyday life in modern society. It must be understood that emergencies are normal occurrences in every society. People become victims of unfortunate events every day. This means that the conclusions of these studies can be used by anyone at any point in society. For example, in an emergency such as a kidnapping on the street, the person being kidnapped can utilize the conclusions of both studies and urge the bystanders to overcome their fears and help. This could as well be so with the bystanders who would use the inferences made in both studies to overcome their internal conflicts and help the victim. Of significant importance is the fact that the fundamental issues that inform both studies are things that people experience in everyday life in modern society. This means that each study has significant relevance to influencing change in the modern society by encouraging bystanders to act in cases of emergencies.

Comparative Influence on Social Change

Considering that both studies explore the same topic but utilize varying number of variables, it is impossible to put more value on one over the other. What this means is that it is not possible to put the modern study to great value at the expense of the classical study. Fundamentally, the modern study is built on a premise established by the classical study. Therefore, they have comparative impacts in relation to how each influences events of social change.

Professional Experience

In professional experience, elements of social psychological research can be applied to help influence change. The best example is how a counselor helps patients to adjust to psychological conditions that impact their mental health. In behavioral therapy, counselors help patients adjust by helping them adopt a path that will lead them to recovery. At this point, a counselor relies on research findings to convince or adopt social-cognitive approaches that will help the patient process information better and use the information to inform their behavior. For example, considering the conclusions of the classical study, a government can appeal to its citizens to not fear helping emergency victims on the basis of the premise established by the study. As this study offers scientific evidence in support of that argument, more and more people will change their perspectives and offer a helping hand to emergency victims. This way, the government, professionals, and citizens will have utilized an element of social psychological research to inform change.

Influence of Social Psychological Research

Social psychological research has indeed been very influential in changing behavior in societies. Every society has a hierarchical framework that is descriptive of how authority is distributed. This also reflects learning processes that uniquely assist with fostering social change. Learning institutions are considered valuable entities that provide knowledge used to effect social change. As a result, social psychological research findings are used to inform society and instigate social change.

Ethical Considerations

Potential Ethical Issues

While there is the ethical issue of deception in the Darley study, there were no ethical issues present in the Karakashian study. There were potential challenges present which were well-articulated by the researchers. In the modern study, the researchers faced a number of challenges during the conceptualization of the research as well as its implementation. However, none of these challenges impacted the ethical integrity of the study, the researcher addressed the limitations of the research at the end.

Use of Ethical Guidelines

As a pioneer study, the classical study highlighted numerous aspects of the topic that could be improved on through future research. It confined itself only to what it could prove through experimentation. It is important to state that each of the studies followed the ethical guidelines of their respective time and period.

Strategy on Ethics

Psychological research is supposed to utilize the APA research ethics guidelines. Each of the provisions of these ethics guidelines should strictly be followed. This is perhaps the most ethically appropriate strategy for research in psychology or sociology. The American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct provides a reliable point of ethical reference to researchers in these fields (Haverkamp, 2005).

References

Darley, J. M., & Latane, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: diffusion of responsibility. Journal of personality and social psychology, 8(4p1), 377.

Haverkamp, B. E. (2005). Ethical perspectives on qualitative research in applied psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 146.

Karakashian, L. M., Walter, M. I., Christopher, A. N., & Lucas, T. (2006). Fear of negative evaluation affects helping behavior: The bystander effect revisited. North American Journal of Psychology, 8(1), 13-32.

Markus, H., & Zajonc, R. B. (1985). The cognitive perspective in social psychology. Handbook of social psychology, 1, 137-230.

Schwarzer, R. (2008). Modeling health behavior change: How to predict and modify the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors. Applied Psychology, 57(1), 1-29.

Zimmerman, B. J., Boekarts, M., Pintrich, P., & Zeidner, M. (2000). A social cognitive perspective. Handbook of self-regulation, 13(1), 695-716.