PSYSCHOLOGY PSY101
PSY101 Introduction to Cultural Psychology
Lecture 8
1
Outline
The Co-Evolution of Language and Human Culture
Cultural Influences on Verbal Language
The Structure of Language
Culture and Language Acquisition
Language Differences Across Cultures
Language And Thought – The Sapir Whorf Hypothesis
Cultural Influences on Nonverbal Communication
Culture and Gesture
Culture and Gaze
Culture and Voice
Culture, Interpersonal Space, and Touch
2
Outline (cont’d.)
Intracultural and Intercultural Communication
Cultural Influences on Encoding and Decoding
Intracultural and Intercultural Communication
Improving Intercultural Communication
Bilingualism and Culture
Psychological Differences as a Function of Language
A Bilingual Advantage for Cognitive Performance?
Perceptions of Bilinguals
Monolingualism and Ethnocentrism
Conclusion
3
The Co-Evolution of Language and Culture
Language is the universal psychological ability in humans
Evolution of human cultures associated with evolution of ability for verbal language
Language facilitates creation of shared intentionality
Human cultures exist because of the ability to have language
Each culture creates its own unique language
Reflects differences and reinforces cultures
4
A Definition of Culture
Human culture: a unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet the basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and well-being and derive meaning from life.
5
Cultural Influences on Verbal Language
6
The Structure of Language
Lexicon: words contained in language
Syntax and grammar: system of rules governing word forms and how words should be strung together to form meaningful utterances
Phonology: system of rules governing how words should sound
Semantics: what words mean
Pragmatics: system of rules governing how language is used and understood in social contexts
7
8
The Structure of Language
Lexicon: words contained in language
Syntax and grammar: system of rules governing word forms and how words should be strung together to form meaningful utterances
Phonology: system of rules governing how words should sound
Semantics: what words mean
Pragmatics: system of rules governing how language is used and understood in social contexts
9
Phonemes and Morphemes
Smallest and most basic units of sound in a language
Form the base of a language in which the language gains in complexity as the sounds gain meaning
Phonemes
Smallest and most basic units of meaning in a language
Each culture has its own set of morphemes in its language
Morphemes
The Structure of Language
Phonemes- the most basic units of sound
11
The Structure of Language
Morphemes-the most basic units of meaning
e.g.
1 morpheme: friend
2 morphemes: friends (friends + s)
2 morphemes: friendly (friend + ly)
3 morphemes: friendliness (friend + ly + ness)
12
Culture and Language Acquisition
All humans have ability to acquire language
Infants produce same range of phonemes across cultures
Through interactions with others, infants’ sound production is shaped and reinforced
Elemental sounds become associated with meanings (morphemes)
Gradually combined into words (lexicons) and sentences
Culture provides the rules of phonology, syntax and grammar, semantics, and pragmatics
13
Figure 10.1 - The Reciprocal Relation between Culture and Language
14
Culture and lexicons:
Culture influences self-other referents (what we call ourselves and others)
American English: simple use of self-other referents
Japanese: more complex self-other referents
Language Differences Across Cultures
15
Language Differences Across Cultures
Culture influences pragmatics
There are noticeable variations high-context and low-context cultures
Some languages have specific forms of honorific speech
Honorific speech: Denotes status differences among interactants
16
Language and Thought: The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (linguistic relativity): speakers of different languages think differently because of differences in their languages
Challenges to Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:
Berlin and Kay (1969): 11 basic color terms form a universal hierarchy
Pinker (1995): thought can be formed without words and language
17
Table 10.1 - Fishman’s Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis Schema
18
Cultural Influences on Nonverbal Communication
19
Cultural Influences on Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal behaviors
Facial expressions and vocal characteristics
Gestures and body postures
Interpersonal distance
Touching behaviors
Gaze and visual attention
Bulk of messages are conveyed nonverbally
Nonverbal channels help in understanding
meaning and emotional states
Source: Courtesy, AP Photo.
20
Culture and Gestures
Gestures - Hand movements used to illustrate speech or to convey verbal meaning
Speech illustrators: Nonverbal behaviors that accompany speech
Used to illustrate or highlight speech
Emblems: Culture-specific gestures that convey meaning without words
Cultures differ in the amount and type of illustrative gestures
21
http://www.cheapflights.co.uk/news/global-guide-hand-gestures /
22
Culture and Gaze
Gaze: Powerful nonverbal behavior with evolutionary roots in animal behavior
Associated with dominance, power, aggression, affiliation, and nurturance
Cultures create rules concerning gazing and visual attention
Behavioral tendencies such as aggression and affiliation are important for group stability
Countries that followed contact cultures engage in more gazing
Gaze is used as a nonverbal sign of respect
23
Culture and Voice
Voice contains many characteristics that go beyond speech in communicating messages
Paralinguistic cues:
Tone of voice, intonation, pitch, speech rate, use of silence, and volume
Emotional states universally conveyed through voice include anger, disgust, and sadness
Cultures differ in facilitating voice and verbal style to illustrate and amplify speech
24
Culture, Interpersonal Space, and Touch
Proxemics: use of space in interpersonal interactions
Cultures differ in interpersonal spaces they allot to intimate, personal, social, and public situations
Interpersonal distance helps to regulate intimacy by controlling sensory exposures
Haptics: non-verbal behaviour involving touch
Violations of space and touch produce aversive consequences
And finally touch and interpersonal space.
Proxemics refers to the use of interpersonal space in interactions.
It seems that the use of personal space changes according to the type of relationship- intimate, personal, social and public. Now those four distinctions seem to be universal, however how people use interpersonal space is culture dependent. So for example Arab males will sit closer to each other than American males, Indonesians will sit closer than Australians. But what is really interesting is that in one piece of research that compared how close people would sit to each other- if people from non English speaking countries spoke in English for the experiment they took on the interpersonal distance that the American participants use. So it was a function of the language being spoken rather than the nationality. But of course language and culture are inextricably linked- so the language made them adopt the cultural practice.
And finally touch-
Haptic communication refers to the ways in which people communicate via the sense of touch. Touch is extremely important for humans and is really important to development in early years. and is vital in conveying physical intimacy.
Touch can be categorized in terms of meaning as positive, playful, control, ritualistic, task-related or unintentional.
But as I mentioned a minute ago cultures tend to be contact or non contact
Contact- arab, latin american southern european
Noncontact- asian, Indian, Pakistan, northern eurpoean, usa
Speaking as a member of broadly speaking a non contact culture or a low contact culture, I know that touching during a conversation say just touching someone’s arm conveys a lot of meaning, and it has to be appropriate, if someone is too close to us or touches us we use phrases like- she invaded my personal space. I’d like to know what it’s like from the other side- is anyone here from a contact culture? Is it interpreted as rude if you're talking to someone and there isn't that touch component?
25
Intracultural and Intercultural Communication
26
Intracultural and Intercultural Communication
Messages: Information and meanings exchanged when people communicate
Encoding: Process by which people select, imbed messages, and send signals to others
Signals: Observable behaviors carrying messages encoded during communication
Channels: Specific sensory modalities by which signals are sent and messages retrieved
Decoding: Process of receiving and translating signals into meaningful messages
27
Cultural Influences on Encoding and Decoding
Cultural decoding rules: Rules learnt as children about decoding behaviors
Develop with encoding rules
Part of the development of communication skills
Includes ethnocentrism, cultural filters, emotions, value judgments, social cognitions, and stereotypes and expectations
Cultures share encoding and decoding rules
People of the same culture develop a set of expectations about communication
Form the basis of filters used in viewing world
28
Types of Cultural Communication
Occurs among people of the same cultural background
Intracultural communication
Occurs between people of different cultural backgrounds
Intercultural communication
29
Potential Obstacles to Effective Intercultural Communication
Assumptions of similarities
Language differences
Nonverbal misinterpretations
Preconceptions and stereotypes
Tendency to evaluate
High anxiety or tension
Uncertainty and ambiguity
Conflict
Figure 10.6 - A Micromomentary Analysis of Intercultural Communication
Figure 10.6 - A Micromomentary Analysis of Intercultural Communication (continued)
Improving Intercultural Communication
Mindfulness: Allows people to be conscious of their own habits, mental scripts, and cultural expectations concerning communication
Components that affect intercultural effectiveness
Motivational, knowledge, and skill factors
Uncertainty reduction: Efforts to reduce the level of uncertainty and anxiety that one feels when decoding intercultural messages
33
Improving Intercultural Communication
One must be aware of his/her face and its maintenance
Face: Concerns with one’s appearance in public or reputation, and the potential embarrassment or shame associated with a threat to that appearance
Emotion regulation
Involves the ability to control one’s negative emotional reactions
Enables one to engage in a more constructive intercultural process
34
Bilingualism and Culture
35
Psychological Differences as a Function of Language
Majority of individuals who speak English also speak at least one other language fluently
Bilinguals have two mental representations of culture encoded in their minds
Bilinguals show different personalities depending on if responses are in first language
Code frame switching: navigating back and forth from one cultural meaning system to the other when accessing one language or another
How many people here speak two or more languages?
How many people here speak only English? Well, we’re in the minority. Most people who speak English also speak another language.
But what does this mean for culture then? If language and culture are so closely linked, what culture do people who speak more than one language conform to?
Well we had a clue already in the research about interpersonal space- and the people who spoke English even I they we’re from an America in that case adopted the cultural norms that went with the language.
And that is what we find- bilinguals or multilinguals have two or more representations of culture in their minds.
And they engage in code frame switching- based on the context cues around them- who they are with, where they are what language they are speaking, they will switch back and forth between the cultural meaning systems, accessing whichever norms, and values are appropriate.
And one of the really interesting findings is that this is even expressed through personality- researches had Chinese and Korean immigrants complete an personality inventory twice, one in the first language, and then in English, and they answered differently.
36
Figure 10.7 - Stimulus Material Used as the Attributional Stimulus
Source: Reprinted from Hong, Y. Y., Morris, M., Chiu, C.-Y., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55, 709–720.
37
Figure 10.8 - Results from Two Studies that Demonstrated Consistent Cultural Priming Effects in External Attributions about Fish Behavior among Hong Kong Chinese Bicultural Individuals
38
Bilingual Advantage for Cognitive Performance
Studies demonstrate that bilinguals selectively attend to stimuli better than monolinguals
It was found that early exposure to a multilingual environment promotes effective communication
Bilingual infants visually track silent video records of adult bilinguals switching languages, but monolingual infants cannot
Bilingual advantages in cognitive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific circumstances
Perceptions of Bilinguals
Perception that bilinguals lack intelligence :
Takes time to respond in second language and thus appearance of having cognitive difficulties
Foreign language processing difficulties:
Arise due to lack of fluency in speaking language, and because of uncertainty or ambiguity about intended meaning of messages
Foreign language effect:
Temporary decline in thinking ability of people who use second language
40
Monolingualism and Ethnocentrism
Americans (and Australians) generally don’t know languages other than English
Ignorance of other cultures often accompanied by ethnocentric view rejecting need to learn, understand, and appreciate other languages, customs, and cultures
Americans are most monolingual of all peoples of world
Thus, language is intimately tied to culture
41
Conclusion
Language plays critical role in transmission, maintenance, and expression of culture
Culture influences language, and language symbolizes what culture deems important
Understanding culture–language relationship is important step for intercultural communicators
Understanding nonverbal behaviour important for appreciating cultural communication differences
Emotion regulation and mindfulness enhances intercultural sensitivity
42