Psy Project

PSY-300-H1419 Biopsychology

October 16, 2021

Developmental Disorders, Learning, and Memory

Critical improvements and milestones in the research in the field of biopsychology have been made, seeking to establish ways through which the brain and nervous functions influence human behavior. Developments that have been made are far-reaching, demonstrating the importance of understanding whether defects in the brain and nervous systems could be the reason behind some development disorders, their impact on working memory and learning. To narrow down the complex issue of biopsychology, two development disorders have been selected, hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia, which are assessed to establish how they are related to the brain and nervous system. Scholarly articles that have extensively covered select development disorders are reviewed, and research design developed.

Literature Review

All behaviors are controlled by the central nervous system, a factor that has created interest in biological psychologists to study how the brain functions in the quest to understand behavior. Sensation and perception, memory and learning, emotions, control movement, motivated behaviors, sleep and biological rhythms, are primary areas that psychologists have paid attention to in their endeavor to establish how the brain and nervous system influence human behavior. Dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are the developmental disorders that have attracted the attention of main scholars, who are interested in understanding how they are related to the brain and nervous system.

According to Moreau and Waldie development learning disorders affect children, impairing their experience of learning in the classroom. Dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are two learning disorders that are evaluated by (Moreau and Waldie, 2016), where they claim they cannot be linked to the inadequate learning environment or the intellectual ability of the children but rather to the underlying brain function. Maturation of the prefrontal areas enables and support executive function such as reading and cognitive processes. Disorganization and inefficiency in neural activity lead to ADHD and dyslexia. Further, variation in the cerebral lateralization related to language processing and executive functions is another mechanism responsible for dyslexia and ADHD, which influences learning and working memory (Moreau & Waldie, 2016). This shows behavioral functions that relate to attention are coordinated in the brain and central nervous system, and that is why a deficiency in neural activity contributes to dyslexia and ADHD.

Applying a data-driven, and trans diagnostic approach, (Holmes, 2020) assessed cognitive dimensions to the children aged 5-18 years that had been identified to have problems in attention, learning and working memory. It was established that learning-related problems was stronger and higher for the students with ADHD, a condition linked to defective executive function, controlled by the frontal lobes of the brain (Holmes, 2020). This is another masterpiece that signifies the central role of the brain in influencing human behavior, which is learning and working memory. In this study, since participants were actively involved to facilitate the study of the cognitive dimension, ethical approval was granted to the researchers, and guardians were involved in providing written informed consent while verbal assent was obtained from the children. Therefore, provide rich information demonstrating the influence of the brain and nervous system on human behaviors such as reading and learning while also providing a framework about how ethical concerns were appropriately addressed (Holmes, 2020).

In another study which entailed meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies, it was established that the differences in the gray matter overlap is associated with dyslexia and ADHD, and particularly reduced gray matter in the right caudate which may be relevant to shared cognitive correlates in the executive functioning (McGrath & Stoodley, 2019). Gray matter in the brain is instrumental in information processing, where the neuropsychological level of analysis reveals that aspects of executive functioning which include working memory and deficit in the processing speeds are the risk factors for dyslexia and ADHD (McGrath & Stoodley, 2019). Technology advancement has been pivotal in biopsychology. In studying how the reduction in the gray matter contributes to attention disorders, data was visualized using MRIcroGL with ALE maps as an overlay and the MNI152 brain as the underlay (McGrath & Stoodley, 2019). This shows that advancement in technology has been an enabler in studying how the brain works, identify dysfunctionalities in the brain, which influence human behavior in many ways.

Ogundele’s outlines social, emotional and behavioral problems, which are experienced by children with developmental disorders such as ADHD and dyslexia. Challenging behaviors exhibited by those suffering from developmental and mental health disorders, disruptive behavior patterns, etiology and risk factors to children with behavioral disorders are also explored as well as management and treatment approaches that can be adopted by pediatricians, widening understanding of development disorders (Ogundele, 2018). Reduced gray matter volume in the amygdala, frontal cortex, temporal lobes, and the anterior insula is linked to the neurodevelopment disorders such as dyslexia and ADHD. This shows that failure of the brain to function as expected is a defining feature which influences social, emotional and behavioral patterns that have been identified.

In further exploration to establish a connection between developmental disorders and brain functions, it has been established that the auditory cortex is widely connected with different regions in the brain such as subcortical, prefrontal and parietal areas, which host attentional and default networks (Serrallach, 2016). The central auditory processing disorders that arise from dysfunction in the central nervous system, are often associated with attention, language and literacy problems, which demonstrate how the brain influences human behavior (Serrallach, 2016). It is noted that children diagnosed with ADHD do have altered brain recruitment for attention networks, and neural inefficiency contributes to ADHD and dyslexia disorders, which demonstrates that the brain and nervous systems influence human behaviors such as learning and working memory, and are linked to developmental learning disorders. In the study, 147 children were investigated for neuro-auditory systems of dyslexic and ADHD using MRI, MEG, and psychoacoustics tests which points to the influence of technology in the study of human behavior (Serrallach, 2016). To meet ethical concerns, research was approved Medical Faculty of an institution while parents provided informed consent in the written and children informed assent (Serrallach, 2016). This shows that desired ethical principles in the research were observed.

Dyslexia origin is traced to the physical location in the brain, which denotes that developmental of dyslexia relates to the brain function. Less gray matter in the left parietotemporal area, and less white matter in the same area, are a notable feature on the brain that are associated with dyslexia (Hudson, High & Otaiba, 2007). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), the method used for imaging brain function, shows a failure of the left hemisphere rear brain systems to function properly during reading (Hudson, High & Otaiba, 2007). The study by Munzer, Hussai and Soares digs deeper into neurobiology widening understanding of developmental learning disorders such as dyslexia are connected to the brain (2020). Taking a closer look at the neural organization provides an understanding of neurological disorders. The left inferior frontal region, the dorsal temporoparietal region, and the ventral occipitotemporal region forms the significant components of the left hemisphere of the brain, which is crucial for reading. Cognitive impairments based on the region that is affected, abnormal functioning of the hub region that connects information between different systems and RSNs, and global reduction in the neuroplasticity of the brain, are potential causes of dyslexia. Therefore, studies that have been reviewed demonstrate that the brain and nervous systems are the origins of dyslexia and ADHD.

In the scholarly articles that have been reviewed, different research designs were used. In some studies, experimental research design has been deployed to assess how deficiency in the brain and central nervous system influence human behavior, with attention paid to dyslexia and ADHD. Specifically, (Serrallach, 2016) and (Holmes, 2020) are studies that deploy experimental research design, practically demonstrating brain and CNS which are linked to attention, and how the deficiency in their functioning contributes to dyslexia and ADHD. Similarly, other studies are consolidation and meta-analysis of previous studies on the subject matter which contributes to the conclusion that reduction in the gray matter, central auditory processing disorders, disorganization and inefficiency in the neural activity, variation in the cerebral lateralization and global reduction in the neuroplasticity of the brain are related to dyslexia and ADHD.

Research Design

In the reviewed literature, the bulk of the research has been on illustrating causes of ADHD and dyslexia, parts of the brain that are impaired and neural disorganization lead to two neurodevelopmental disorders (Moreau & Waldie, 2016). However, the question that has not been addressed is how failure in the identified brain parts and nervous systems influence human behavior. Therefore, from this research gap, a research question has been identified which is,” How ADHD and dyslexia disorders are linked to the brain and nervous system and, and how do they influence human behavior?”

Establishing the parts of the brain and central nervous system that are linked to dyslexia and ADHD are not adequate in responding to the biopsychology issue at hand, that is how learning disorders outlined influence human behaviors. Interesting areas for the interrogation are in response to research question are: defective areas of the brain and CNS linked to dyslexia and ADHD, behavioral functions that relate to identified brain and CNS linked to learning disorders, and lastly, behavior patterns and behaviors exhibited by the individuals suffering from dyslexia and ADHD.

Meta-analysis research design would be adopted, where results from previous research would be assessed which have used modern technologies such as fMRI, MRI, MEG system to study how brain function, and identify defective parts for those with ADHD and dyslexia. In the study by McGrath and Stoodley (2019), authors applied a meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies in studying the neural correlates between dyslexia and ADHD. Given the need to ensure ethical principles are maintained, and research would not engage the use of human beings as the subject, the experimental research design is ruled out and instead meta-analysis research design which would systematically review previous studies on the how brain and CNS are linked to learning disorders, and how associated brain and CNS functions influence human behavior. Additionally, social function, human activities and behaviors that cut across cognitive dimension, interpersonal relationships and learning behaviors would be identified which are to the brain and nervous systems, and which exhibits signs and symptoms of ADHD and dyslexia. This will help to address a very important question on how ADHD and dyslexia influence human behavior.

Finally, since this research depends on previous research, it means that no human subjects would be included in the research. Instead, previous research from which information would be obtained and consolidated to conclude must have met ethical concerns. Notable ethical principles that previous research must meet include: approval from necessary review board where human subjects are used, informed consent from participants that are above 18 years, parent provide informed consent and subjects informed assent when subjects are lower than 18 years, and protection of subjects from harm (Holmes 2020; Serrallach 2016). The sources that have been used in the literature review have been assessed and found to meet outlined ethical principles. Therefore, in the research design that would be applied in the project, no effort would be spared in ensuring that whichever systemic review study is incorporated complies with ethical research principles.

References