project
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Recommendations to Solve the Problem of Low FAST-Reading Assessment Scores among
Special Education Students at Somerset Academy Riverside in Florida
by
Mary Mohall
Liberty University
An Applied Research Study Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University
2027
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Literature Review
Overview
The intention of this study is to provide research-based suggestions for improving
FAST Reading Assessment performance for the special education subgroup at
Somerset Academy Riverside in Florida. The special education subgroup at Somerset
Academy Riverside is underperforming consistently and scoring below grade level
proficiency on the FAST-Reading Assessment. This standardized assessment does not
accurately reflect the learning capacities of students with disabilities. Standardized
assessments typically consist of multiple-choice, and close-ended questions, which do
not provide students the opportunity to exhibit inferential comprehension, critical
thinking, and applied literacy skills needed to exhibit mastery of grade level academic
content. This narrative review includes research literature focused on reading
assessments and instruction, as well as Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory about its
implications for optimizing reading outcomes for special education students. The review
synthesizes current research to identify factors that lead to low-performance on
assessments, and research-supported strategies that can lead to increased positive
literacy outcomes for students with disabilities.
Narrative Review
There are ongoing difficulties in determining the true level of fidelity towards
student achievement and meaningful learning outcomes with regard to the area of
special education assessment and instruction. There are notable discrepancies
between standardized assessment practices and students with disabilities actual
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academic ability. Teacher preparation and collaboration play an important role in closing
the gap toward student academic achievement, self-efficacy, and motivation. The
purpose of this narrative review is to provide a summary of contemporary research that
addresses the impact of assessment practices, teacher behaviors, and the connection
between assessment and instructional practices on reading achievement for students in
the special education setting.
Historical and Policy Context of Reading Assessments
Performance expectations and teacher accountability have been central to
education within the United States for many decades. Rury et al. (2022) examine the
foundational aspects of test-based accountability by indicating that educational
practices that connect performance to accountability surfaced in the 1970s and 1980s,
followed by continuous conversations about equitable education. It is clear from this
historical context that, while accountability systems were put in place to improve
educational processes, they have also created problems for diverse learners, especially
for students with disabilities who may need to demonstrate their understanding in
alternative formats.
As assessment and educational accountability become increasingly complicated,
Stevenson et al. (2025) contribute to the debate in their reminder that educators often
feel the pressure to teach the content material on the tests. While the debate about
educational equity and access to schooling for students with disabilities persists,
inequity continues to exist in educational outcomes and in opportunities to learn by
assessment. Can standardized tests offer valid assessments of students’ educational
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assessments that represent all learners, or do our current methods need new
approaches to assess, assess, and measure literacy skills?
Reading Assessment Challenges
Current research shows significant validity concerns for standardized reading
measures for students in special education, primarily regarding whether such
assessments assess a student’s literacy, or skill level. Most standardized assessments
do not have higher-order thinking required, or do not allow for any recognition of
differentiated response (Bellido-García et al., 2022; Sujinah et al., 2024). This poses an
even tougher challenge for students in special education who may need varied
assessment formats to show their level of mastery. As Sujinah et al. (2024) explains,
cognitive diagnostic assessments may allow for a more valid representation of
diagnostic data with respect to skill proficiency with special education learners.
Regardless, standardized assessments are continually an underrepresentation of the
student knowledge within special education students. This contributes to causing
learning gaps in what a student knows and what the data present from the reading
assessments.
Standardized assessments are structurally limited not only in their formats but
also in their inability to capture the subtle cognitive processes that make reading
comprehension meaningful. Bellido-García et al. (2022) point out traditional approaches
to assessments rely on implicit theories about learning that may not reflect the variety of
ways students with disabilities process and represent their understanding. Closed-
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ended formats limit students' opportunities to respond with evidence of analytical
thinking, creativity in their solutions, and depth of comprehension of text. This one-
dimensional way of assessing skills does not adequately reflect the skills that special
education students may possess, including students who struggle with some aspects of
literacy and excel in others.
Testing Anxiety
As accountability and assessment show no sign of relenting, Stevenson et al.
(2025) inform us that students, especially students with learning disabilities, exhibit
greater testing anxiety about high-stakes assessments. Although many scholars
engaging within these discussions point to equity and access as themes in education,
educators are still witnessing students with learning disabilities undergo unnecessary
levels of excessive stress. As educators think about this ongoing tension with student
performance on assessments, it leads us to consider if standardized assessments
measure the validity capabilities of diverse learners or do we need to develop new
methods of evaluating literacy to alleviate testing anxiety?
According to this perspective of Social Cognitive Theory, this anxiety is viewed
as not just a personal trait but as genuinely an outcome from the interactions between
the characteristics of the student, the experiences of the performance, and
environmental demands. When the assessments regularly restrict what the student can
demonstrate about their true performance, the anxiety builds and ultimately leads to
lower performance outcomes. Addressing this cycle requires interventions that alter the
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assessment environment and also address the students’ self-efficacy beliefs of their
academic performances.
Social Emotional Learning
According to the Social Cognitive Theory, anxiety is not a fixed characteristic of
a person but a product of interactions of a student's personal characteristics, past
performance history, and demands from the environment. High-stakes assessments
often prevent students with learning disabilities from showing their true ability under
pressure, resulting in increased anxiety over time. This anxiety negatively impacts their
feelings of self-efficacy and willingness to engage in academic tasks. To break this
cycle, intervention plans must include both modified assessment environments and
support for developing students' self-belief and confidence that they can accomplish the
task.
Critical Review of Formative Assessments
Using formative assessments can serve as a substitute or supplement to high
stakes standardized testing. Banihashem et al. (2025) offers an important viewpoint
contrasted with formative assessment approaches with learning analytics, significantly
understanding both advantages and disadvantages of technology use in assessment.
Digital tools potentially allow educators to gain a degree of insight into student
understanding unparalleled previously; they provide feedback and adaptability to
instructional practices in real-time. However, this requires the utmost caution regarding
validity and planned use of data for instructional practices. Learning analytics must be
implemented in a cautious manner - with consideration of how data collection can be
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used to support learning, rather than hinder, particularly for students with disabilities
who may engage with digital tools differently than other students.
Increasing Educational Achievement
To enhance educational achievement for students with disabilities, it is critical to
employ comprehensive approaches that look at multiple factors at the same time.
Antalek et al. (2025) support evidence-based interventions from the perspective of
educational practitioners, stressing that instruction provided does need to be sound in
principle, but it must also be practical to implement instruction within the context of use.
Their research emphasizes the importance of practical considerations and contextual
factors that affect the success of interventions. Although simply identifying effective
practices is important, effecting educational improvement requires the contextual
realities and practice conditions that enable practitioners to deliver effective educational
practices with fidelity, while at the same time, adjusting to the needs of individual
students.
Teacher Preparation and Instructional Alignment
Teacher preparation, their decision making about instruction, and how they use
assessment data are all important to the quality of reading instruction for students with
disabilities. Theobald et al. (2022) found that teacher preparation programs that
incorporated literacy instructional strategies resulted in significantly greater growth
returns in reading achievement for students with disabilities. This finding emphasizes
the necessity not only to improve teachers' content knowledge but also to keep
supporting their practice of using assessment data as evidence for how they might
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individualize the instruction and measure students' growth. Most importantly, the
synergy generated by an alignment of teacher preparation, assessment practices, and
the instruction, collectively supports students' learning more than focuses on the overall
improvements of any one of these areas individually.
Assessment to Determine Instruction
The shift from assessment data to purposeful instructional practices is a crucial moment
for teacher knowledge and practice, as they relate to student outcomes. Varier et al.
(2024) explores the ways teachers utilize assessments to inform their instructional
practice and discover that teachers engage various forms of assessments while having
different beliefs about the value in planning instruction. Although assessments were
well-developed technically, the fact that teachers use them differently illustrates that
having assessments does not always translate into better instruction. Without teachers
being able to make assessments actionable for instructional change, students do not
progress. The difference between administering assessments and responding
instructionally is a critical area for teachers to focus on for professional learning and
support.
Teacher Collaboration
Cooperation between general and special education teachers is a key aspect of
effective inclusive education, but the measurement and implementation of true
collaboration is difficult to achieve. Kluge et al. (2025) develop validated measures of
co-constructive collaboration as a means of measuring collaboration between general
and special education teachers, noting that true collaboration involves more than co-
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locating or taking joint responsibility for students. The study finds that professional and
purposeful collaboration entails teachers sharing knowledge and skills and developing
more individualized instruction together. The benefit of this type of collaboration is that it
allows both teachers to draw on their respective areas of expertise that complement
each other.
Kelly and colleagues (2022) articulate this notion by focusing on teacher agency
and establishing welcoming spaces in which teachers feel prepared and supported to
make changes to their practice for disability inclusion. Data indicate that empowering
teachers means not only building knowledge and skills, but also establishing structural
conditions for teachers to be able to use professional judgment and respond to the
needs of their diverse students. Data suggests systems that equally prioritize support
systems around teacher collaboration alongside the competing priorities and schedules
teachers face increase student achievement.
Student Engagement and Motivation
Teacher behaviors that encourage both self-efficacy and student engagement must be
included with activities that focus specifically on motivation regarding student learning.
In examining differentiated instruction for students with special educational needs in
inclusive classrooms, Strogilos et al. (2021) share a variety of strategies and
adaptations that have been identified to support the learning of diverse students. Their
findings indicate that to support individual needs of students, teachers are required to
make complex and targeted decisions about varying levels of content, process, and
product in ways that foster student engagement. Engagement is also developed through
motivation through the development of self-efficacy for those students who have
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previously struggled. Increased self-efficacy, motivation, and an internal locus of control
are developed by experiencing success while engaging in appropriately challenging
tasks.
Tare et al. (2020), conducted a study to explore engagement with evidence-
based literacy support delivered on a digital platform. Their research found that when
students engaged with literacy interventions through the principles of Social Cognitive
Theory, they had more effective reading outcomes than the students who did not have
the support. This important study indicates the value of considering not only what is
taught but how it is taught and how students are engaging with instruction to support
their learning.
Alternative Assessment Approaches
Educators are recognizing the deficiencies of standardized assessments in
measuring readiness and achievement of students with disabilities. The field of special
education research has begun exploring alternative means of assessment with a
greater focus on providing an authentic measure, or representation of what students are
actually learning. To shift to more genuine assessment approaches, Boehning and
Holliday (2024) discuss converting portfolios into a strength-based self-advocacy tool to
allow students to gather evidence of their learning in various dimensions and formats.
This shifts the assessment from a deficit-based model, which emphasizes what
students cannot do, to a strength-based model, which emphasizes what students can
do. Portfolio assessments provide students an opportunity to show growth over time,
demonstrate skill mastery, and develop a metacognitive understanding of their learning.
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Roca-Compos et al. (2024) provide further perspective with their study of dialogic
literacy gatherings, with the intention of improving literacy skills of students with and
without special educational needs. This paper illustrates that collaborative, dialogic
approaches to literacy teaching and assessment allow students to exhibit
comprehension and analytical thought in ways not available in traditional, individual
assessments. Such interactive formats facilitate the building of ideas based on each
other’s contributions, receive feedback right away, and actively engage with the text in
meaningful ways to support deep understanding.
Hisbullah and Ajigoena (2021) discuss the management of learning evaluation in
educational context, highlighting that assessment is an important aspect of education
that requires careful planning, implementation, and follow-up. In their view of evaluation
management, they argue that thoughtful implementation of alternative assessments is
needed, including predefined criteria and consistent evaluation behaviors to produce
trustworthy and valid information regarding student learning.
Theoretical Framework
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory, provides a holistic development of how students
with special needs learn to read and respond to standardized assessments. This theory
emphasizes that learning happens through the continuous interaction of personal
factors, behavior, and environmental factors. These factors contribute to academic
achievement and personal growth of special education students at Somerset Academy
Riverside who tend to score below proficiency on the FAST-Reading Assessment.
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Knowing how the individual factors for students, educational practices and assessment
context interacted will explain the very complex, multiple influences on learning to read.
In his book, Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive
Theory, Bandura (1986) argues students are not simply passive agents in the influence
of the environment, but students play an active role in making meaning from their
observations, reflections, and self-management. The theory illustrates how individuals'
subsequent responses and motivated behaviors are influenced not only by past
thoughts and experiences but by manipulating individual contexts. The reciprocal
influence between participants and their environments challenges simplistic stimulus-
response models and cannot accurately explain the difficulties of human learning and
motivation.
According to the Social Cognitive Theory, self-efficacy shapes what students will
attempt, how long they will sustain efforts in the face of challenges, and how their
experiences will inform their future success. Self-belief is particularly important for
students who experience challenging situations due to learning differences.
The Social Cognitive Theory is relevant to the present inquiry on many levels. First, it
assists researchers in understanding how students' prior experiences with standardized
assessments inform their self-efficacy beliefs regarding their reading and testing ability,
which, in turn, impacts achievement on the FAST-Reading Assessment. Etherton et al.
(2020) noted that self-efficacy beliefs are significant predictors of academic
performance and student wellness, with anxiety functioning as a mediating variable.
Therefore, when students engage with assessment formats repeatedly that do
not match their learning profiles and are not able to demonstrate their true ability, self-
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efficacy belief in reading and testing potential declines. Moreover, students will put forth
less effort, experience increased anxiety, and start to spiral further downward.
Furthermore, Bandura's theory of reciprocal determinism discusses the interplay
between environmental variables such as teaching practices, educator expectations,
and testing format and learner characteristics to impact learning outcomes. The FAST-
Reading Assessment, a multiple-choice, closed-ended assessment, represents an
environmental variable which may not heed the cognitive processing approaches of
many special needs learners. Enhanced outcomes will arise from modifying the
environmental variable, such as assessment formats, to provide opportunities for
diverse learners to show they understand in various ways, while creating conditions that
will better facilitate success.
In addition, the concept of self-regulation is rooted in Social Cognitive Theory and
is relevant to student literacy development and success in assessment. Self-regulated
learners identify specific goals, self-monitor their progress through task completion, use
strategic thinking to address requirements of tasks, and reflect on their learning
experiences. Tare et al. 's (2020) research introduces students who utilize digital literacy
support that incorporate principles of Social Cognitive Theory, such as providing real
time feedback, scaffolded experiences, and metacognition to achieve better reading
outcomes than students without digital support. The Social Cognitive Theory
demonstrates the importance of developing student independence and strategic ability
when thinking about changes to the FAST-Reading Assessment.
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Bandura's (1986) perspectives concerning Social Cognitive Theory are not just
applied to students. Collective efficacy consists of a shared belief that educators can
utilize resources needed to act towards a specific outcome. When special education
and general education colleagues work together to respond to common assessment
and instruction needs, they develop a culture conducive to teacher efficacy and student
success. Kelly et al. (2022) assert that empowering teachers is critically important for
every disabled student inclusion. When teachers feel prepared and confident in their
instruction, they are able to better support students with learning differences. This
aspect of Social Cognitive Theory should be recognized and implemented instead of
simply developing student interventions to increase reading achievement.
Furthermore, Social Cognitive Theory describes the ways in which students'
experiences with high-stakes testing affect their self-efficacy, which then, in turn, affects
academic performance. Anderson et al. (2023) investigate how anxiety symptoms in
youth negatively influence the relationship between cognitive functioning and reading
comprehension. When assessment formats create a consistent environment in which
students are limited in their ability to demonstrate real evidence of understanding,
anxiety builds as performance drops. Breaking this cycle requires interventions that
modify the assessment environment while simultaneously addressing self-efficacy beliefs
about academic achievement. Based on evidence from Anderson et al. (2023),
assessments designed to measure academic performance should minimize anxiety-
inducing elements while creating opportunities to enhance students' confidence through
positive experiences.
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The relationship between Social Cognitive Theory and evidence-based practices
in special education continues to reinforce its suitability as a possible framework for this
study. Recent studies show differentiated instruction, formative assessment, and
universal design for learning reflect Social Cognitive Theory principles by
acknowledging that students need multiple means for representation, engagement, and
expression. Making modifications to the environment can improve opportunities to gain
competence and self-efficacy. Situating low FAST-Reading Assessment scores within a
Social Cognitive Theory framework allows this study to address the understanding that
significant improvement rests on how instructional environment, teacher practices, and
student belief combine to shape literacy outcomes for the special education group in
this study at Somerset Academy Riverside.
Summary
Students with disabilities receiving special education services at Somerset
Academy Riverside are faced with significant barriers to completing the FAST-Reading
Assessment because it is a standardized assessment instrument that does not provide
meaningful insights into actual reading comprehension or analytical skills. Research
demonstrates how standardized assessments do not match and align with
individualized, scaffolded instruction to which special education students are
accustomed to and require. Using Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory to frame this
literature review, the major influences of social modeling, motivation and engagement,
and instructional feedback in literacy performance have been examined in the literature
reviewed. The review has synthesized evidence that assessment anxiety and
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assessment formats that do not utilize modalities to accommodate unique learning
needs create a self-fulfilling prophecy of decreased self-efficacy and poor performance.
This study demonstrated how standardized assessments served as high-stakes
accountability for students and educators, but concerns remain about validity and
authentic performance reporting for students with disabilities.
Teacher readiness, cooperatives, and the coherence of instructional practice are
critical components of increasing reading achievement for students in special education.
Research demonstrates that when teachers are prepared to provide literacy
instructional practices aligned with assessment, students with disabilities achieve
significantly greater reading growth. Whenever general and special education educators
engage in meaningful cooperation, based on situated sharing of knowledge in cycle co-
constructed instructional practice, the conditions foster potential to support learners
better.
Assessment alternatives such as portfolios and dialogic literacy are encouraging
substitutes to standardized testing. Students can demonstrate understanding through a
variety of formats, illustrate growth over time, and engage in more meaningful literacy
tasks that better represent their capacity to demonstrate understanding. Based on
Social Cognitive Theory, these substitutes foster environmental conditions that
ultimately support students' development of self-efficacy, reduce experiences of anxiety,
and provide students with opportunities to have a successful experience.
Enhancing reading comprehension and assessment performance for special
education learners at Somerset Academy Riverside requires a multifaceted, systematic
approach. This strategy must encompass assessment validity and design, teacher
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capacity and collaborative structures, student motivation and self-regulation, and the
tactical application of evidence-based instructional practices. By investigating these
interconnected areas of inquiry within the framework of Social Cognitive Theory,
educators and administrators can develop recommendations that factor in not only what
is assessed but how assessment environments, instructional practices, and student
beliefs influence, either positively or negatively, literacy outcomes. The evidence
presented indicates that substantial improvement will require more than minor
adjustments; it will necessitate a rethinking of how we conceptualize reading
proficiency, assess it, and support students with a variety of needs in learning to read.
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