Understanding the difference between a discriminative stimulus
Stimulus Control of Behavior
Chapter 10
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Stimulus Generalization: Responding in the same manner to similar stimuli.
Discrimination Learning: Responding in different ways to different stimuli; responding to some stimuli but not others
Stimulus generalization occurs frequently in the real world
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Sometimes it is undesirable (e.g., racial, ethnic, religious prejudice).
However, generalization is often adaptive.
For example, if a parent reads a book to a child and the child likes it, a positive emotional experience is conditioned to the book.
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Sometimes it is undesirable (e.g., racial, ethnic, religious prejudice).
However, generalization is often adaptive.
For example, if a parent reads a book to a child and the child likes it, a positive emotional experience is conditioned to the book.
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Generalization causes us to respond in basically the same way to stimuli similar to the stimulus in past experience.
Generalization Gradients
A visual representation of the response strength produced by stimuli of varying degrees of similarity to the training stimulus.
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Generalization gradients can depict either
Generalization of excitatory conditioning (S+): S+ is presented with test stimuli ranging from similar to dissimilar to S+
Generalization of inhibitory conditioning (S–): S– is presented with test stimuli ranging from similar to dissimilar to S–
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Excitatory Generalization Gradients
Most studies of generalization gradients have investigated the generalization of excitatory conditioning.
Excitatory generalization gradients: A graph showing the level of generalization from an excitatory conditioned stimulus (S+) to other stimuli.
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Many studies of these gradients employ pigeons, which have excellent color vision.
Guttman and Kalish (1956) trained pigeons to peck illuminated keys for food.
Used different colored disks; pigeons responded to the disk color associated with food in training phase.
Gradient was similar regardless of the training stimulus
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Degree of generalization can be determined from shape of the gradient
Flat gradient indicates similar responding to all stimuli
Steep gradient indicates responding differently to different stimuli
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Although in many circumstances the individual will respond to stimuli similar to the conditioning stimulus, in other situations, animals or people may generalize to stimuli that are both very similar and very different to the conditioning stimulus
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
As is true of excitatory generalization, in certain circumstances, inhibition generalizes to stimuli quite different from the training stimulus.
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Inhibitory Generalization Gradients
Weisman and Palmer (1969) illustrate the inhibitory-conditioning generalization gradient.
Pigeons were trained to peck at a green disk (S+) to receive reinforcement on a VI-1 minute schedule.
When a white vertical line (S–) was presented, pigeons were not reinforced for disk pecking
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
When presented with a series of white lines ranging from 180° to 290°, the vertical white line inhibited responding, with the generalization differing depending on the degree of similarity to the S–
The greater the deviation from S–, the less inhibition that occurred
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
The Nature of the Stimulus Generalization Process
Lashley–Wade theory of generalization: Suggested that animals and people respond to stimuli that differ from the training stimulus because they are unable to distinguish between the generalization test stimulus and the conditioning stimulus.
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Thus, an inability to discriminate between training and test stimuli is responsible for stimulus generalization.
According to Lashley & Wade, generalization represents the failure to discriminate, discrimination prevents generalization, and failure to discriminate leads to generalization.
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Generalization to stimuli dissimilar to the training stimulus occurs when nondifferential reinforcement training is used.
Discrimination training results in generalization only to stimuli very similar to the conditioning stimulus.
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Four lines of evidence support Lashley–Wade
generalization to stimuli dissimilar to the training stimulus occurs when nondifferential reinforcement training is used
discrimination training results in generalization only to stimuli very similar to the conditioning stimulus
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The Stimulus Generalization Process
Generalization occurs when an animal cannot differentiate between the training stimulus and generalization test stimuli
Perceptual experience influences the amount of generalization
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Discrimination Learning
SD: A stimulus that indicates the availability of reinforcement contingent upon the occurrence of an appropriate operant response.
SΔ: A stimulus that indicates that reinforcement is unavailable and that the operant response will be ineffective.
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Discrimination Learning
Discriminative stimulus: A stimulus that signals the availability or unavailability of reinforcement
Discriminative operant: An operant behavior that is under the control of a discriminative stimulus.
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Discrimination Learning
To interact effectively with our environment, we must learn to discriminate the conditions that indicate reinforcement availability from the conditions that do not.
Discriminative Control of Behavior
Discrimination learning involves learning to respond to the SD and not to the SΔ
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Discrimination Learning
Involves activity of Prefrontal Cortex and Hippocampus
Discrimination learning involves discovering not only when reinforcement is available or unavailable, but also when aversive events may or may not occur.
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Discrimination Learning
SD and SΔ in discrimination learning are comparable to S+ and S− in generalization.
We are simply referring to different properties of the stimulus.
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Discrimination Learning
The Neuroscience of Discrimination Learning
Discrimination learning involves learning to respond to the SD and not to the S∆. Two areas of the brain, the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus, play a significant role in discrimination learning.
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Discrimination Learning
Kosaki and Watanabe (2012) reported that positional discrimination learning (one lever associated with reinforcement and the other two were not) was impaired in rats following damage to the medial prefrontal cortex or the hippocampus. Impaired discrimination learning occurred because the animals with medial prefrontal cortical or hippocampal damage perseverated on a previously correct lever.
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Discrimination Learning
Sometimes, discrimination learning involves one stimulus as the SD and another as the S∆. In contrast, the same stimulus can be an SD sometimes and the S∆ at other times.
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Discrimination Learning
Two-Choice Discrimination Tasks
Two-choice discrimination learning: A task when the SD and SΔ are on the same stimulus dimension.
Responding to the SD produces reinforcement or punishment, and choosing the SΔ leads to neither reinforcement nor punishment.
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Discrimination Learning
Sometimes the two are presented simultaneously and sometime sequentially.
In this paradigm, they must choose to which to respond.
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Discrimination Learning
Research shows that initially, subjects will respond to the SD and SΔ equally.
With continued training, responding to the SD increases and responding to the SΔ declines.
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Discrimination Learning
Conditioned Discrimination Task
Conditioned discrimination: A situation in which the availability of reinforcement to a particular stimulus depends upon the presence of a second stimulus.
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Discrimination Learning
In some circumstances, a particular cue indicates that reinforcement is contingent on the occurrence of an appropriate response, whereas under other conditions, the cue does not signal reinforcement availability.
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Behavioral Contrast
Behavioral contrast: In a two-choice discrimination task, the increase in response to SD that occurs at the same time as responding to SΔ declines
Local contrast: A change in behavior that occurs following a change in reinforcement contingency. The change in behavior fades with extended training.
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Behavioral Contrast
Sustained contrast: The long-lasting change in responding due to the anticipated change in the reinforcement contingency.
Also called anticipatory contrast
According to Williams (2002) anticipatory contrast only occurs when its effect on behavior is stronger than prevailing reinforcement contingencies.
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Behavioral Contrast
The behavioral contrast phenomenon points to one problem with discrimination learning: It can have negative consequences.
A decrease in a negative behavior in one setting can lead to its increase in another setting.
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Occasion Setting
A stimulus can prepare an animal to respond to the CS.
The Properties of a Pavlovian Occasion-Setting Stimulus
One stimulus may have the ability to enhance the response to another stimulus.
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Occasion Setting
In the absence of the occasion-setting stimulus, the CS has no effect on behavior.
Called Occasion-Setting because one stimulus “sets the occasion” for another stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
For example, end of a meal may set the occasion for a cigarette to elicit a craving/smoking response.
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Occasion Setting
Interoceptive (i.e., internal) stimuli can also act as occasion setters for conditioned stimuli
Rescorla (1986) argued that the facilitating effect of a stimulus is produced by lowering the threshold of reaction to the CS.
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Occasion Setting
He suggests that this facilitation effect is the opposite of the effect of conditioned inhibition, which raises the threshold reaction.
An occasion setter facilitates response to an excitatory CS only if that CS has previously served as a target stimulus for other occasion setters.
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Occasion Setting
Pavlovian Occasion Setting Stimuli and Operant Behavior
An occasion setter can also facilitate an operant response.
For example, Many people smoke at the end of a meal, and seeing a cigarette after a meal makes a smoker crave a cigarette. However, seeing a cigarette does not always make a smoker crave a cigarette. An occasion setter may facilitate a response to seeing others smoking.
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Occasion Setting
Smoking is perceived as more pleasurable after a meal. If the smoker sees a cigarette after a meal, craves it, but does not have a cigarette, he or she may ask a friend for one.
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Occasion Setting
Discriminative Stimuli and Conditioned Responses
The elicitation of a CR by an excitatory CS is influenced not only by Pavlovian occasion setting but also by discriminative stimuli.
The presence of the SD can enhance the conditioned response to the CS just as an occasion setter does.
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Occasion Setting
Context as Occasion Setting Stimulus
Chaudhri, Sahuque, and Janak (2008) first paired an auditory stimulus (CS) with ethanol (UCS) in rats in one context. The CR was then extinguished by presenting the auditory CS without the ethanol UCS in a second context. Chaudhri, Sahuque, and Janak found that the auditory CS would not elicit the conditioned in the second context (negative occasion setting stimulus), while the auditory CS elicited the CR in the first context (positive occasion setting stimulus), a process referred to as resurgence of the extinguished CR.
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Occasion Setting
Trask, Schepers, and Bouton observed that the suppression of responding following extinction does not mean that original learning had been erased or unlearned but just inhibited by a negative or inhibitory occasion setter.
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Occasion Setting
Gonzalez, Garcia-Burgos, and Hall (2012) reported evidence that context can serve as an occasion setting stimulus for flavor preference learning. In their research, flavor–sucrose was paired in context X (excitatory occasion setting stimulus) but not in context Y (inhibitory occasion setting stimulus). Gonzalez, Garcia-Burgos, and Hall found that their rats consumed the flavor in context X but not in context Y.
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Occasion Setting
The Neuroscience of Occasion Setting Stimuli
Memory plays an important role in occasion setting. An animal must remember that a stimulus is associated with reinforcement in the presence of some stimuli (e.g., a specific context) and the same stimulus is associated with nonreinforcement in the presence of other stimuli (e.g., a different context).
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Occasion Setting
The cortical circuits that acquire and maintain this conditionally regulated behavior involve the orbitofrontal cortex (part of the prefrontal cortex) and the dorsal hippocampus. Shobe, Bakhurin, Claar, and Masmanidis (2017) found that occasion setting stimuli activate the orbitofrontal circuit.
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Occasion Setting
Meyer and Bucci (2016) reported that orbitofrontal lesions impair occasion setting.
Yoon, Graham, and Kim (2011) observed that hippocampal lesions disrupted contextual controlled occasion setting stimuli.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning: Suggests that conditioned excitation first develops to the SD, followed by the conditioning of inhibition to SΔ.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
Development of Conditioned Excitation and Inhibition
According to the Hull-Spence view, discrimination learning develops in three stages.
First, conditioned excitation develops to the SD as the result of reinforcement.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
Second, nonreinforcement in the presence of the SΔ results in the development of conditioned inhibition to the SΔ.
Finally, the excitation and inhibition generalize to other stimuli.
The combined influence of excitation and inhibition determines the level of response to each stimulus
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
The Hull-Spence model predicts a steeper generalization gradient with discrimination training than with nondiscrimination training.
The maximum response occurs not to the SD, but rather to a stimulus other than the SD, and in the stimulus direction opposite that of the SD.
This is known as the Peak Shift Phenomenon.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
The Peak Shift Phenomenon
Hanson (1959) reported three important differences between the discrimination and nondiscrimination generalization gradients.
A steeper generalization gradient appeared with discrimination than with nondiscrimination training.
This is supported by the Hull-Spence model.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
The greatest response for discrimination-training subjects was not to the SD, but to a stimulus away from SD opposite the direction of the SΔ.
This is also supported by the Hull-Spence model.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
The overall level of response was higher with discrimination training than with nondiscrimination training.
This was not supported by the Hull-Spence model.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
Peak shift phenomenon is not always present with human subjects.
This finding has been interpreted as evidence that, in some cases, humans responses are based on associative processes early in testing and cognitive processes later in testing.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
Peak shift: The shift in the maximum response, which occurs to a stimulus other than SD and in the stimulus direction opposite that of the SΔ
In contrast, pigeons receiving nondiscrimination training responded maximally to the SD
The overall level of response was higher with discrimination training than with nondiscrimination training, which the Hull-Spence model did not predict.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
The Aversive Character of SΔ
Terrace (1964) suggested that behavioral contrast is responsible for the heightened response seen with discrimination training.
Argued that exposure to the SΔ is an aversive event and that the frustration produced during SΔ periods increased the intensity of the response to other stimuli.
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Hull-Spence Theory of Discrimination Learning
The effect of drugs that eliminate frustration-induced behavior supports Terrace’s view.
Administration of these drugs disrupts the performance on a discrimination task.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
A training procedure in which the gradual introduction of SΔ leads to responding to SD with few or no errors to SΔ.
Some discriminations are more difficult to acquire than others.
For example, Pigeons can discriminate colors better than line tilt.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Training Procedure
During the first phase of this procedure, the presentation of the S∆, a dark key, lasted 5 seconds and then increased by 5 seconds with each trial until it reached 30 seconds. In the second phase of S∆ introduction, the duration of the S∆ was kept at 30 seconds, and the intensity of the S∆ was increased until it became a green light. During the final phase of the study, the duration of the S∆ was slowly increased from 30 seconds to 3 minutes.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
By contrast, for pigeons receiving constant training, the S∆ was initially presented at full intensity and full duration. One progressive training group and one constant training group were given an early introduction to S∆; the S∆ was presented during the first session that a pigeon was placed in the training chamber. The other two groups (one progressive, one constant) received late S∆ introduction; the S∆ was introduced following 14 sessions of key pecking with the SD present.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Errorless discrimination learning has been consistently observed since Terrace’s original studies. In addition to errorless discrimination learning reported in pigeons by Terrace, errorless discrimination learning has been found in rats (Ishii, Harada, & Watanabe, 1976), chickens (Robinson, Foster, & Bridges, 1976), sea lions (Schusterman (1965), and primates (Leith & Haude, 1969). Recently, Arantes and Machado (2011) were able to demonstrate errorless learning of a conditional temporal discrimination in pigeons.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Nonaversive SΔ
The behavioral characteristics found with standard discrimination training are not observed with errorless discrimination training.
The peak shift does not appear.
It produces the same level of responding to the SD as nondiscrimination training does.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Presentation of SΔ , as well as stimuli other than the SD , inhibits responses in subjects receiving errorless discrimination training
Drugs that inhibit frustration-induced behaviors have no effect on responding to the SD.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Suggests that SΔ is not aversive.
SΔ does not develop inhibitory control; instead, subjects learn only to respond to SD.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Application: Errorless Discrimination Training in Humans
Gollin and Savoy (1968) taught preschool children a shape discrimination using the fading technique; Moore and Goldiamond (1964) used this procedure to teach a pattern match; and Corey and Shamov (1972) used it to teach oral reading. In each of these studies, the children given the faded series of S∆ stimuli made few errors, while other subjects who received standard discrimination training made many incorrect responses to the S∆.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Learning without errors also has been shown to facilitate discrimination learning in adults (Mueller, Palkovic, & Maynard, 2007).
Kessels and de Haan (2003) reported that young adults and older adults learned face–name associations more readily with an errorless than with trial-and-error discrimination learning.
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67
Errorless Discrimination Learning
Komatsu, Mimura, Kato, Wakamatsu, and Kashima (2000) found that an errorless discrimination training procedure facilitated face–name associative learning in patients with alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Clare, Wilson, Carter, Roth, and Hodges (2002) observed that face–name associations were more easily learned with an errorless discrimination procedure than trial-and-error discrimination learning in individuals in the early stage of Alzheimer’s disease.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Wilson and Manley (2003) observed that errorless discrimination learning enhanced self-care functioning in individuals with severe traumatic brain injury
Kern, Green, Mintz, and Liberman (2003) reported that errorless discrimination learning improved social problem-solving skills in persons with schizophrenia.
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Errorless Discrimination Learning
Benbassat and Abramson (2002) reported that novice pilots learned to respond to a flare discrimination cue more efficiently (smoother and safer landings) with an errorless discrimination than with a control procedure involving errors.
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The Transposition Effect
Transposition: Kohler’s idea that animals learn relationships between stimuli and that they respond to different stimuli based on the same relationship as the original training stimuli.
There is evidence to support both the Hull-Spence model and Kohler’s model.
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The Transposition Effect
Animals often respond to relative, rather than absolute, qualities of the stimuli.
In other cases, they respond to the stimulus’ absolute value.
Schwartz and Reisberg (1991) suggest both approaches are adaptive.
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The Transposition Effect
Inhibitory generalization gradient: According to the Hull-Spence model, at a point on the continuum below SD, the inhibitory generalization gradient does not affect excitatory responses.
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The Transposition Effect
According to Hull-Spence model, at this point on the gradient, response to the SD should be greater than the response occurring at the lower wavelength test stimuli.
The relational view suggests that the response occurring at the lower value will always produce a response greater than SD does.
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The Transposition Effect
Thus, some results support the Hull-Spence model while others support Kohler’s relational view.
The relational view is supported on a choice test (one or two stimuli).
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The Transposition Effect
The Hull Spence approach is supported on a generalization test when subjects respond to one stimulus.
What if stimuli are tested which have multiple dimensions?
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77
Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
Suggests that attention to the relevant dimension is strengthened in the first stage, and association of a particular response to the relevant stimulus occurs in the second stage of discrimination learning.
Certain “analyzers” are aroused, which determines which dimension of the stimulus the subject responds to.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
Initially, the level of arousal of a particular analyzer is related to the intensity and salience of the stimulus dimension; the greater the strength and salience of a particular dimension, the more likely that dimension will activate the analyzer sufficiently to arouse attention.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
The predictive value of a particular stimulus dimension influences the amount of attention the analyzer of that stimulus dimension arouses.
The analyzer will arouse more attention if the stimulus predicts important events.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
In the second phase of discrimination learning, the activity of the analyzer is attached to a particular response, and the response strengthens as a result of reinforcement.
The relative predictiveness of an SD determines its ability to control response.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
The Recognition of the Relevant Dimension
According to Sutherland and Mackintosh (1971), each stimulus dimension can activate an analyzer. The analyzer detects the presence of the salient or relevant aspect of a stimulus, and the arousal of a particular analyzer causes an animal to attend to that dimension. Thus, the presentation of a compound stimulus arouses the analyzer of the relevant dimension but not the analyzers of the other stimulus dimensions.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
According to Sutherland and Mackintosh (1971), the predictive value of a particular stimulus dimension influences the amount of attention the analyzer of that stimulus dimension arouses. The analyzer will arouse more attention if the stimulus dimension predicts important events. However, an analyzer will arouse less attention if the stimulus dimension for that analyzer is not predictive of future events.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
Association of the Analyzer With a Response
In the second phase of discrimination learning, the activity of the analyzer attaches to a particular response.
The connection between the analyzer and the response strengthens as the result of reinforcement.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
Sutherland and Mackintosh’s (1971) viewed reinforcement that increases both the attention to a particular dimension and the ability of a particular stimulus to elicit the response.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
Predictive Value of Discriminative Stimuli
Wagner, Logan, Haberlandt, and Price (1968) investigated the influence of the SD’s predictiveness on its control of operant response.
Wagner and his colleagues (1968) were interested in the degree of control the light cue would gain.
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Sutherland and Mackintosh’s Attentional View
Wagner and colleagues reported that the light better controlled responses for subjects in the first group than in the second group. These results indicate that it is the relative predictiveness of an SD that determines its ability to control an operant bar-press response.
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Continuity Versus Discontinuity
Continuity theory of discrimination learning: The Hull-Spence model suggests that the development of discrimination is a continuous and gradual acquisition of excitation to SD and inhibition to SΔ.
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Continuity Versus Discontinuity
According to Krechevsky and Lashley, the learning of discrimination is not a gradual, continuous process.
Instead, it is a process of hypothesis testing.
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Continuity Versus Discontinuity
Noncontinuity theory of discrimination learning: Suggests that discrimination is learned rapidly once an animal discovers the relevant dimension and attends to relevant stimuli.
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Continuity Versus Discontinuity
Research has supported the Hull-Spence view and the Krechevsky–Lashley view.
Continuity theory explains how the emotional components of discrimination are learned and noncontinuity theory describes the attentional aspects of discrimination learning.
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