Chapter summary

[ 17 J Be Holy

Leviticus is dominated by the topic of holiness. Its prominence derives from the fact that God is holy. Although Leviticus emphasizes God's power to sanctify, or make holy, other people or objects, it also highlights the danger posed by the moral and ritual uncleanness associated with human behavior. Holiness and uncleanness are presented as mutually exclusive. Consequently, for the Israelites to enjoy a close and meaningful relationship with God, they must reflect his holiness in their daily lives. Since differing degrees of holiness and uncleanness exist, the Israelites are divinely exhorted, "Be holy because I, the LORD your God, am holy" (19:2; cf. 11:44-45; 20:26).

Introduction

The book of Leviticus continues the story of Exodus by describing what takes place in the thirteenth month after the Israelites' divine deliverance from Egypt (cf. Exod. 40:17; Num. 1:1). As a result, the books of Exodus and Leviticus and, as we shall later observe, also Numbers are closely connected. Leviticus both assumes the erection of the tabernacle, which forms the climax of the book of Exodus (40:1-38), and records the consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests, fulfilling the instructions given to Moses by the LORD in Exodus 2 6 9:l-4G. Leviticus must therefore be read in conjunction with Exodus, both ooks £ · · h ormmg part of the continuous and carefully composed narrative t at co . mpnses the Pentateuch Although Leviticus con~inues the story of the Israelites' journey from Egypt

to Canaan I · d' · h , a most 90 percent of the book consists of ivme speec es on a

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TIIE MAIN T111 Mrs 01· TIit: P E N1. ATl: UCII

variety of topics. As a result, apart from numerous short introductio these discourses (cf. 1:1; 4:1; 5:14; 6:1; 6:8; etc.), there are only two se n_s to in which the narrator describes events rather than reports God's wo dct1ons

. fh. rs1'h first of these focuses on the consecration o t e priests and the sub · e sin of Nadab and Abihu (8:1-10:20); the second passage is much bri s;que11t deals with a man who blasphemes by cursing God (24:10-23). Eve: ~rand short episode more than half the verses record what the LORD says to~ this (24:13-22). Leviticus is thus composed almost entirely of divine speeche;ses chis regard it closely resembles Exodus 20:22-24:2 and 25:1-31:17. · In

In Leviticus, Moses continues his role of med!ator between God and t Israelites. While the LORD nearly always speaks directly to Moses alon he a few occasions Aaron is also included (11:1; 13:1; 14:33; 15:1)-his wo ~n usually intended for either the Israelites (e.g., 1:2; 4:2; 7:23, 29; 11:2) r s ahte

) Th . d. . . b h . or t e priests (6:9, 20, 25; 21:1; 22:2 . 1s 1stmct1on etween t e ma1ority of Is d c h d. · 1 · d - . raef. ires and the selecte rew w o are 1vme y appomte as pnests 1s a signific

feature in Leviticus. Not only is it reflected in many of the divine speeches ~nt also, more important, it lies at the very heart of the account of the consecr;t" Ut of Aaron and his sons as priests in Leviticus 8-9. Here the narrative highlig~n the three stages by which Aaron and his sons are set apart from the rest of t~s Israelites. First, they ar~ brought out ~ro°: the ~idst o~ the community (8:6~ ro be consecrated as pnests. Th~ special ntual-1~volvmg washing, clothing, and anointing--endows them with a degree of holmess that surpasses that of other Israelites (8:6-30) .1 Moreover, because Aaron is treated differently from his sons, he is recognized as being ever holier. Second, the priests are to stay at the entrance to the tabernacle for seven days (8:31-36). Not only does this further emphasize their separation from the people but it also confirms their holy status; unlike the rest of the population, they remain in close proximity to God. Third, on the eighth day there is a rite of incorporation by which the priests are once again brought into contact with the rest of the community (9:1-24). Although Moses provides instructions, the newly appointed priests offer up the sacrifices on behalf of the community, with Aaron, as high priest, performing the main tasks. By recording that "fire came out from the pres- ence of the LORD and consumed the burnt offering and the fat portions on the altar" (9:24), the account of the consecration of the priests concludes by highlighting God's acceptance of Aaron and his sons as the community's cultic representatives.2 Leviticus thus emphasizes the important distinction that God institutes between the priests and all other Israelites.

1. For a fuller discussion of the different elements that comprise the ritual for consecrating the priests, see chap. 16 above.

2. In Lev. 9:23 the appearance of the glory of the LORD to all the people parallels what oc- curs immediately after the erection of the tabernacle (Exod. 40:34-35). On both occasions God expresses his approval and acceptance of what has just taken place by displaying his presence to the people.

ih H oly

II s stressing the differing degrees of h I' p..s we and other Israelites, the book of Lev·it? iness that exist betw

· ests a . h 1cus, esp - II een che p!I also draws attention to ov:, ordinary Israelites bel~c1a y in chapters 11-15, . . clean or unclean. Vanous factors-m· 1 d' ng to one of tw ones. . f . . cu tng e - o categ ff ring from certam types o skm disease 1 . ating Particular

d su e . d' 'd al , or experien . foo s, d' harges--cause m 1v1 u s, and sometim ctngparticular d·Iy 1sc b es even th bo I ct with them, to ecome unclean. Anyan d . ose who come

con ta f . fi . e es1gnated into dergo a process o p~n cation before they can full . ~s unclean [llust un rfe of the commumty. y part1c1pate in the religious I

Clean and Unclean I-Ioly, ' c cures noted briefly in the preceding paragraphs dra .

The 1ea al w attention to th d categories that permeate most all of the material . L . . ree relate d I n1· in ev1t1cus· th

h Iv clean/pure, an unc ea impure. The importance of h h ' ese are O ,, . d b h f t ese t ree cat . sis underline y t e requent occurrence of these and a . d - egone . . -,- b d h ssoc1ate words h ghout Levmcus. i erms ase on t e Hebrew root qiida • ( -d h t rou . ,, " "fy") 152 . s qa as ) (e.g "h Iv,, "holiness, sancu appear times in Leviticus r .. , 0 ,, ll · h , epresenting b t one-fifth of a occurrences m t e Old Testament The d' . _h a OU . d . . a Jective ta or

" 1 an,, and associated wor s occur 74 times, representing m h · ' c e , ore t an one- h .rd of all Old Testament occurrences. The adjective tiime·• "u l ,, d t 1 . . , nc ean, an

cognate terms appear 132 times, represe_nt!ng more than half the total occur- rences in the Old Testament. These statls_ncs highlight the importance of the categories holy, clean/pure, and unclean/impure in Leviticus.

The existence of these three categories is reflected in the layout of the Israelite camp. At the heart of the camp stands the tabernacle courtyard, a holy area; the res~ of the ca'!1p ~as the status of a clean area; and everywhere outside the camp 1_s unclean. T~1s same threefold division is also found among the people; the pnests are considered to be holy, the Israelites clean, and non- Israelites unclean. Moreover, the places and people correspond directly: the priests are associated with the tabernacle, the Israelites with the camp, and the non-Israelites with those outside the camp (see figure 17 .1).

Within these main categories, subdivisions also exist. Regarding holiness, this is evident in a number of different spheres. First, differing degrees of holi- ness exist within the priesthood and laity. The high priest is distinguished from the other priests in a number of ways. Not only is the ritual for his consecration distinctive, as are his clothes, but he alone enjoys the title of "high" priest. At

. 3. Although these skin diseases have in the past been understood to be a form of leprosy (i.e., Hansen's disease), that is most unlikely.

4-While the entire area outside the camp is considered unclean, selected places are set apart as clean for the disposal of the ashes from the altar in the tabernacle courtyard (Lev. 4:12, 21; 6:11; cf. the burning of the bull of the purification offering [16:27]).

T 111 M " "" T111 "' '"' n1 r111 Pi N r,r1 ut· 11

2.40

1 7 1 Holiness and Cleanness In the Layout of the lsraellte C flGUH • • 81lls,

outside lhe camp unclean

camp clean

tabernacle holy

priests

Israelites

non-Israelites

any time there can be only one high priest, and each new appointee needs to undergo a special consecration ritual. Of all the priests, the high priest alone is permitted to enter the Holy of Holies, the holiest room of the tabernacle. The high priest is also required to adhere to much stricter rules regarding marriage, purity, and mourning.

A lesser category of priests consists of those who suffer from some form of physical defect. Although they are prohibited from offering sacrifices, they are allowed to eat from the portions of sacrifices allocated to the priests. Next to the priests in holiness are the Levites. Though they are not permitted to offer sacrifices, they assist the priests with other duties concerning the tabernacle, especially its transportation and erection (Num. 4:1--49).5 Although the priests and Levites enjoy a special status of holiness arising from their ancestry and

5. Although the Levites and the priests are all descended from Levi, the third oldest son of Jacob, only Aaron and his sons are designated priests. See chap. 20 below for a fuller discussion of the relationship between the priests and Levites.

. 8 • 1-l o t y

Pointment, nonpnestly Israelites are gi h . ·nc ap 1· b b . vent e op d•"' d . ree of ho mess y ecommg Nazirite .,.. . POrtunity to h . I er eg f d d ' . s. •o atta1 h' ave a tug 1 k "a vow o e 1cat1on to the LORD ,, h' h n t 1s holier st

t:l es ' . , w 1c e .1 atus, one I e produce of the vme and (2) not cutting o ' nht~1 s (1) abstaining f m tl . f l f . . ne s air (N ro bdivisions o peop e sur ace m different c . urn. 6:1-ll)

I se su d' . Ontexts w th' . 1' ic I whereas or mary Israelites could touch I in Leviticus. Fo n,p e, h h any corps r

e>C3 ..-.itted to touc t e corpse of only a close r l . e, regular priests Per... h'b' d f h . e at1ve (L 2 ;ire . h priest is pro I ite rom avmg contact . h ev. 1:1-4), and

the hig d the tabernacle is divided into at leas;tiht any_c~rpse (10:1-7) . Secon ' f h 1. ree d1stm dl·fferent degree o o mess. The tent itself co . ct areas, each 'th a f . ns1sts of rw

WI <Joly Place (Holy o Holies) and the Holy Pla Th 0 rooms, the t,1ost ri f h . ce. e forrn f h . •ng the ark o t e covenant, 1s considered to b h er o t ese

otain1 e muc h l' h ' co. t room, the Holy Place, which contains the la 0 ier t an the diacen ,, d . mpstand th bl

a "bread of the Presence_, an the incense altar.6 The tabern' e ta e for ~hel holy than the tent itself, although holier than th acle courtyard is ess . f h e camp frorn h' h . . eparated by a curtain ence. T ese different degrees f h •1. w_ ic it is s l fl d . h o o mess w th' h bernacle are a so re ecte mt e access that people h O l

I tn t e ta l f H 1· . . ave. n y the high . t may enter the Ho Y o o 1es, and even he 1s limited . pnes (L to one day 111 the the Day of Atonement ev. 16). Although any priest year, . b may enter the Hol Pl e ordinary Israelites are arred; they have access onl t h Y ac , l fu . h ' y o t e courtyard

Third the tabernac e rms mgs also reflect the threefold p tt f h 1. · , d ' ff f h a ern o o mess , nd within the I erent areas o t e tabernacle. They do - b 1ou . . . so 1n a nurn er of Ways depending on (1) their locauon, (2) the materials used • th . ' · ·b·1· 111 eu manu- facture (3) theu access1 1 1ty to humans, and (4) their use 1·n 1· · . l , . . . re 1gious ntua s. The holiest furmture, made of pure gold, 1s placed within the t h l ent; t ea tar and basin, made of bronze, are located in the courtyard. Although d'

. . d . h b or inary lsraehtes are perm1tte to view t e ronze altar and basin only · . . . . . , pnests may look on the gold furmshmgs m the Holy Place with immunity (Num. 4:18_20). Within the ten~, the ark o_f the covenant is set apart from the other items of furniture by bemg placed m the Holy of Holies. It is so holy that only the hi h priest may approach it, and even then he possibly uses smoke from incense ~o conceal the top of the ark from view (Lev. 16:12-13).7

Fourth, particula r days of the week and year exhibit differing degrees of holiness. The weekly Sabbath and the annual Day of Atonement are marked as especially holy by the prohibition of all work (Lev. 23:3, 28) . The pilgrimage festivals of Unleavened Bread, Weeks, and Tabernacles and certain other days are considered less holy and therefore require abstinence only from regular work (23:7, 21, 25, 35). Finally, while the Israelites are expected to make special

6. For a detailed discussion of the layout of the tabernacle, see chap. 16 above. 7. These distinctions between the items of furniture are also reflected in the instructions

given in Num. 4:5-33 regarding the activities of the Kohathites, Gershonites, and Merarites in helping the priests transport the tabernacle.

THE MAIN TII E MES OF TH E P EN TATEUCII

offerings on the first day of each month, they are permitted to work days, indicating that they are the lea~t _holy of all special days.

011 these

In the light of these four factors, It 1s apparent that the book of l . . I I b' d ev1t1 envisages a world in which peop e, p aces, o Jeers, an even period _cus

. s of t1 have differing degrees of holiness. Ille

Just as there are varying degrees of holiness, so too with unclean ness.

1. The strength or weakness of an i'.11purity is judged by its abilit communicate impurity to other obJects or persons. Only mor ~ to

II I l b' e seriou forms of impurity can po ute ot 1er peop e or o Jeers. For exa I . s a man lies with a woman during her monthly period, she caump he,_ if

c d d . b ses •111 to become unclean ror seven ays, an , m turn, any ed upon which h lies also becomes unclean (15:24). Furthermore, anyone who t h e

h . I l ouc es this bed becomes unclean; however, t 1s atter unc eanness lasts c 1oronly one day and cannot be transferred to other people or objects.

2. Differing degrees of impurity are reflected by the way in which h pollute the sanctuary. The location of the pollution is indicate~ ~y where the blood of the purification offering is placed. Deliberate y intentional sins pollute the ark of the covenant in the Holy of Hor°r

f · · I · d · b h h ies (c. 16:16); unmtent1ona or ma vertent sms y t e igh priest or th community pollute the incense altar in the Holy Place (4:2-21); Jesse: sins or impurities pollute the bronze altar in the courtyard (4:22-35).

3. Leviticus distinguishes between impurities that can be rectified and those that cannot. Regarding the former, considerable attention is given in chapters 12-15 to the rectification of uncleanness arising from skin diseases and various bodily discharges. In marked contrast, among impurities that cannot be rectified are sexual sins (18:20, 23-25, 27-30), idolatry (20:2-5), murder (Num. 35: 16-21, 31), and profaning the sacred (e.g., Lev. 7:19-21; 22:3, 9). In these cases only the death of the guilty party can remove the pollution caused by the sin.

When rectification is possible, the process by which any uncleanness is to be purified varies, depending on its seriousness. Normally a person or object is pu• rified by (1) the passage of time and (2) washing and/or laundering; objects that cannot be washed are disposed of by burial, burning, or some other method. For minor impurities, the length of time required for purification is one day (e.g., for touching the carcass of an animal; Lev. 11:39). More serious impuri- ties require the passing of seven days (e.g., touching a human corpse; Num. 19:11). Longer periods of forty and eighty days are necessary for a woman who has given birth to a son or daughter respectively (Lev. 12:2- 5) . Regarding the washing of the body and the laundering of clothes, requirements again differ depending on the degree of impurity. For example, whoever touches an

8 • Ho,r

S is unclean for a day; whoever carries an a • I

I areas . . d nima care . 911

jJ11:I ~ uritY and 1s require to ':ash their clothes (l l:24-25 ass sustams reiirer irn

1 P observations concermng holiness and uncl ' ~7-28).8

g r ,ese f eanness/im . . froftl hat rhey form a spectrum o closely assoc· d pumy, It ent t . 'dd . iate catego .

·s 3ppitf ·d •s holiness, m the mt le ts cleanness and h nes. On I s1 e t fi ' on t e other . d . Che one ;·mpurity (see gure 17.2). The further one mo f si e 1s ness t . . ves rom th 'ddl U11dean um the greater the mtenstty of either holi'ne e mi e . pectr , ss or uncle of chis s cient Israelites ev~ry person, object, place, and period of _anness. for rhe a~ somewhere on this spectrum. time can be Jocate

E 17 2. Spectrum of Holiness, Cleanness and Uncle f1GUR • ' anness

11 I I I I I I I I I I I I I ·•g Cl Increasing 1~ eanness ________ ___ _;_

Holiness Uncleanness

f W e have discussed the concepts of holiness and uncleanness w'th So ar . . . 1 out

. to define them. Hence tt 1s necessary to clarify what is meant by th crying f L . . Wh . h . ese

I .thin the context o evmcus. at ts olmess? What is unclea ~ cerms w nness.

Holiness

In Leviticus, holiness is always associated with God. Four aspects of this are

very significant:

t. God is innately holy; he is the supreme manifestation of holiness. To be holy is to be God-like.

2. Holiness emanates from God; he is the sole source of holiness. He alone endows other objects, places, or people with holiness. Everything that is given to God or belongs to him is holy. Since God radiates holiness to all that is close to him, the ark of the covenant, which functions as the footstool of his throne, is the most holy item of furniture in the tabernacle. For the same reason the Holy of Holies is the holiest part of the tabernacle; indeed, God's presence makes it the holiest location on the entire earth.

8. According to J. Milgrom, Cult and Conscience: The Asham and the Priestly Doctrine of Repentance (Leiden: Brill, 1976), 108-21, when an individual expresses remorse regarding a deliberate sin, this has the effect of lessening the resulting pollution and thereby reduces the amount of rectification required.

243

T11t M11.1 N T11 r M L S o r r111 P 12N T ATll UC"II

244

3. Holiness describes the moral perfection and purity of God's n· d I I I. "B h •\ture ,, this reason God's comm!n tot 1e srae 1tes'. e oly because

1 -ror

LORD your God, am holy (Lev. 19:2), comes m the context of. , the I ' b I · Th · · 1111Pe rives governing the peop e s e 1av1or. e1r actions and attit d ta. u es

to reflect God's perfect nature. are 4. Sanctification, the process by which someone or something beco

· · . . I . G d h ·fi rnes hot is the result of d1vme actlVlty. t 1s o w o sancti es. This is ref! Y, in the refrain "I am the LORD, who makes you holy ["I sanctify ected NRSV]" (20:8; 21:8, 15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32). Though Leviticus pres You,"

. , . . 1 h . h h ents th divine side of sancnlicanon, 1t a so emp as1zes t e uman side ih e made holy by God are expected to remain holy by doing nothi hse would compromise their special status (cf. 11:44). The Israelites :gt I at to keep holy anything sanctified by God. This applies, for exam r~ a so the Sabbath day. Because God has sanctified it, the Israelites ar[ e, to manded to maintain its sanctity by refraining from all work (E~o~- 20:8-11). ·

A natural extension of the belief that God is holy is the idea that holin means wholeness or perfection. To be holy is to be unblemished or unmarr:~s It is to experience life in all its fu!lness a~ ~od has _originally intended it t~ be. This is reflected on one level m the d1vme requirements regarding both priests and sacrifices. Priests with physical defects are not permitted to offer sacrifices (Lev. 21:17-23). Similarly, it is regularly stated that the sacrificial offerings must be without defect (1:3, 10; 3:1, 6; 4:3, 23, 28, 32; 5:15, 18; 6:6; 9:2-3; 14:10; 22:19-25; 23:12, 18; cf. Exod. 12:5); only in the case of a free- will offering is an exception made (Lev. 22:23).9 On another level, holiness is associated with perfect moral behavior (cf. 20:7; 22:32-33). This is especially revealed in chapter 19 (but cf. also Lev. 18 and 20), which contains a long list of commands governing personal behavior. The material in this chapter closely echoes the Decalogue, or Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:2-17), and the collection of moral instructions found in the Book of the Covenant (Exod. 22:21-23:9). To be holy is to live in a way that reflects the moral perfection of God; it is to live a life marked by love, purity, and righteousness, which are the three most important hallmarks of perfect behavior.

Uncleanness

In simple terms, uncleanness is the opposite of holiness. It represents all that is less than God-like. Although Leviticus never identifies the original source of uncleanness, we may surmise that it is believed to emanate from

9. The defects that disqualify priests and sacrificial animals correspond closely (cf. Lev. 21:18-20; 22:22-24) .

Oses God. Uncleanness is associated · h h · h opP Wit uma · I

r wh1' rcain forms of uncleanness or impur'it . ns 1n two c 1~ • t ce h . Y arise as a

.,5. firs ' f being human. T ese mclude sufferin f _natural w~, nee O b d'l d' h g rom spec16 k'

O nscque d experiencing o I y isc arges. These and rel d f c s in

c an b 1· k d . ate onns f d·5eases ' II appear to e m e m one way or anoth d o 1 ess a . d . . er to eath B ncleann bodily diseases an cond1t1ons with death h · Y as-u • some d h d • , t e regulat ciatlng . di'cate that eat ommates human exi'ste O ions 50 . · us in nee. nly b b f Levine I an a human escape the domain of death and . Y e-

o ·og ho y c f G d expenence the conll . ower o o . life-giv1ndg Ph re are other forms of uncleanness that humans hav th

on , t e . d ' "d I b h . . e e power to sec h occur when m 1v1 ua s Y t e1r actions transgress b d I 1 ese h "llf 11 . any oun ary

,ontro · db God. People w o w1 u y ignore God's command d bl. he Y d d fil s, ecrees or e5ta is rce of uncleanness an e e all that they touch Th . . ' e a sou d d b . • e1r acuons

laws ar them from Go an nng them further under the d . f h distance omam 0 bot

death-

! • nship between Holiness and Uncleanness fheRe auo . . h. hlights two important factors regarding the relationship betw

L v1ncus ig . h 1· d l een e liness and unc!eanness. _First, o mess an unc ~anness are totally incompat- ho ,.1 only is it impossible for anyone or anythmg to be holy and unclean at 'ble i,ot h l b' 1 • time· more important, no o Yo 1ect or person is normally permitted the same , . h h ' l io Th" . · nto contact wit anyt mg unc ean. 1s mcompatibility between w~~1 f h .

I . and uncleanness accounts or t e existence of many of the regulations

ho mess . h . found in Leviticus. It explams t e necessity of the complex sacrificial system, outlined in chapters 1-7, th~t enables ~hose ~h_o ~re unc~ean to become pure

d holy. Without the offenng of sacnfices, it 1s 1mposs1ble for the Israelites :: live in close cont~ct with the Lo RD their God." .

Second, both holmess and uncleanness were perceived by the ancient Isra- elites as being dynamic in nature: they have the ability to transmit their nature to other people or objects. In this regard they differ significantly from the state of cleanness/purity, w_hich is merely neutral and unable to make anything else clean or pure. Consequently, any clean person or thing is constantly in the middle of a struggle between the powers of holiness and uncleanness. u Since the status of an individual can change, Leviticus consistently underlines the danger posed by uncleanness to those who are holy or pure. This danger is greatest for the priests, who work within the tabernacle, a holy area, and handle

the tabernacle furniture, holy objects. For a priest to serve in the tabernacle, it

10. When such contact occurs, it either has a purifying or defiling effect, depending on the specific circumstances.

11. For a fuller treatment of sacrifice, see chap. 18 below. 12. Elsewhere in the OT this conflict is presented in terms of Yahweh's conflict with death.

II E MA IN T II CM 1.: S Or T 11 l: P 1; NT A TE U C 11

is essential that he remain holy. If he becomes unclean, he can no lo h. · 1 nger out 1s dunes; to do so would mean death.' carry

Old Testament Summary

Since the narrative in Genesis and Exodus moves toward the creation f 1 as a "holy nation," it is hardly surprising that Leviticus should define~ Srael detail what it means for the Israelites to be holy. This increased intin more holiness follows naturally from the creation of the tabernacle and G~~:

st in

cupation of it. Although in Genesis the concept of holiness is barely me . s oc. because God does not dwell on earth, with the construction of the tab ntioned everyth_ing is transfor~1ed. Given that ~oli~ess em~nate~ from God, t~:~:e, One, his presence amid the people brings mto their daily lives an im ly new dynamic. Because their God is holy, the people themselves must l,or~ant This, however, will be a constant struggle for them due to internal and e e oly.

246

h d d . . Xternal

powers t at oppose Go . By om111at111g the book of Leviticus the c of holiness lies at the heart of the Pentateuch. ' oncept

New Testament Connections

The concepts of holiness and uncleanness are frequently mentioned in the New Testament and closely reflect what we observe in Leviticus. Regarding uncleanness, Jesus focuses attention on actions or attitudes that make a per- son unclean: "What comes out of a person is what defiles them. For it is fro within, our of a person's heart, that evil thoughts come--sexual immorali: theft, murder, adultery, greed, malice, deceit, lewdness, envy, slander, arro: gance and folly. All these evils come from inside and defile a person" (Mark 7:20-23; cf. Matt. 15:17-20). In doing so, he is highly critical of the Pharisees and teachers of the law who have neglected these causes of uncleanness while concentrating on relatively minor aspects of ritual purity (cf. Matt. 23:23-28; Luke 11:37-41). Paul likewise associates impurity with wickedness and im- morality (e.g., Rom. 1:24; 6:19; 2 Car. 12:21; Eph. 4:19; 5:3, 5). According to Paul, such sinful behavior is to be shunned by believers, "for God did not call us to be impure, but to live a holy life" (1 Thess. 4:7; cf. 1 Cor. 1:2; 1 Tim. 2:8). Holiness is clearly linked to behavior that is morally exemplary. This explains why Jesus instructs his followers: "For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly

13. The danger that the holy furnishings of the tabernacle pose to an unclean person is also reflected in the regulations concerning an individual who unintentionally kills another person. They are instructed to cling to the horns of the altar. Only one who is morally clean can expect to touch the altar with immunity.

--- --- - - --- ---------- 8 • 1-\ 0 Ly

h kingdom of heaven .... Be perfect th f er t e , ere ore as h 110t cnt_ feet" (Matt. 5:20, 48). ' your eavenly

I r is per f fat 1e Testament re erences to purification high!" h .,., eNeW d h d . ig ttwocom l 1 1 O the one han , t ey un erhne that God • h P ememary

cts n ( f A 15 9) M is t e one wh . ~5pc ·1

re unclean c . cts : . ore specificall h O punfies e w 10 a . d h h h . . y, t ey emph . thos . is achieve t roug t e sacnfic1al death of J . as1ze that ·ficauon . . h 1· h h esus Chnst· "B "f purl . h light as he 1s 111 t e 1g t, we ave fellowshi .th · ut I we lk 111 t e ' · fi P wi one an h wa d of Jesus, his Son, pun es us from all sin" (l John 1_7_ ot er, and

the bl00 14

Heb 1:3; 1 John 1:9) . On the other hand her · 'cf. John 15:3; r. us 2· ; . h h , ievers are exh d 1t ·h selves· "Since we ave t ese promises dea f . d Orte to •fy t em · ' r nen s let · purl

I from everything that contaminates body and spi . ' f ~s punfy

urse ves f G d" (2 C 7 nt, per ectmgh r o f reverence or o or. :l; cf. James 4·8) s· .fi o l- ess out o . . h N --r . • igm candy the

n h" -three occasions 111 t e ew ,estament (excludingR l . ' re re t irtY d " . ,, "h l eve at1on) when a . are designate as samts or o y ones" (e.g., Acts 9.13 3 believers 27 15·25 26 31 · 16·2 15) . , 2; 26:10;

1·7· 8: ; · , ' ' · ' · RoJUTh. ·co' ncept of holiness figures prominently in all the Ne -r

e f 1·f . b h b" . w ,estament . l 5

Holiness o I e 1s to et e am ltlon of every believer Pet £p1st e • d L . . "B . · er expresses . st clearly an quotes ev1t1cus: ut Just as he who called . h l this mo f . . . , you 1s O y

50 be holy in all you do; or 1t 1s written: Be holy, because 1 am holy"' (l Pet~

l:lS-l6; cf. Rom. 6:_19, 22; 2 Cor. 1:12; Eph. 4:24; Co\. 3:12; 1 Thess. 2:lO·

3 .13. 1 Tim. 2:15; Titus 1:8; Heb. 12:14; 2 Pet. 3:11). The author of H b ' . , . f h 1. " e rews underlines the importance o o _mess: M~ke every effort to live in peace

with everyone and to be holy; without holmess no one will see the Lord" (Heb. 12:14) .

Although believers are constantly exhorted to be holy, God's role in the process of sancti~cati~n _is als_o re~ogniz~d (1 Thess. 5:23). Hebrews pictures God as a father d1sc1pl111mg his children 111 order to produce holiness of char- acter: "God disciplines us for our good, that we may share in his holiness" (Heb. 12:10). Most attention, however, tends to be focused on the role played by Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. On three occasions the two are mentioned together in connection with the sanctification of believers (1 Cor. 6:11; Heb. 10:29; 1 Pet. 1:2). Second Thessalonians 2:13 refers specifically to "the sanc- tifying work of the Spirit" (cf. Rom. 15:16). This is obviously linked to the beli~f that the Holy Spirit dwells within believers: "Do you not know that your bodies are temples of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have received from God?" (1 Cor. 6:19). As God's presence made the tabernacle holy, so too the presence of the Holy Spirit sanctifies believers. Elsewhere the sanctifying work of Jesus Christ is highlighted; he is "the one who makes people holy" (Heb. 2:11; cf. Acts 26:18; 1 Cor. 1:2). This is all-importantly linked to Christ's cleat~: "We have been made holy through the sacrifice of the body of Jesus Christ once for all" (Heb. 10:10; cf. Col. 1:22; Heb. 10:14; 13:12).14

14· The concept of consecration lies at the heart of the Passover. See chap. 14 above.

248

TH E M A I N TH E M ES OF TH E P EN TAT E U CH

A number of incidents recorded in the Gospels focus on the rel . between the holy and the unclean. When Jesus touches those who a ationship with skin diseases, he displays his power both to heal and to pur:;/~clean 8:1-4; Mark l:4o-44; Luke 5:12-14). The same is true when the woma Matt. has been suffering from bleeding for twelve years touches Jesus (Mat n Who 22; Mark 5:24-34; Luke 8:42-48). Similarly, when Jesus restores the~-

9 :z0-..

life, he reveals his power over death, a primary source of uncleanness (~d to 9:18-26; Mark 5:35-43; Luke 7:11-17; 8:49-56). Jesus's holy nature• ~tt. recognized by his disciples (John 6:69; cf. Acts 3:14; 4:27, 30; Heb. 7:2~ :;o by the unclean spirits or demons who refer to him as "the Holy One of God~ (Mark 1:24; Luke 4:34).