Discussion Chapter 6

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Adolescence 12e Laurence Steinberg

Chapter 6 –

schools

Chapter 6 –

schools

Chapter 6 Overview (1)

The Broader Context of U.S. Secondary Education

The Origins of Secondary Education

School Reform: Past and Present

What Should Schools Teach?

Education in the Inner Cities

The Social Organization of Schools

School Size and Class Size

Age Grouping and School Transitions

Tracking

Ethnic Composition

Alternatives to Public Schools

Chapter 6 Overview (2)

Classroom Climate

The Best Classroom Climate for Adolescents

Teacher Expectations and Student Performance

The Importance of Student Engagement

School Violence

Beyond High School

The College-Bound

The Non-College-Bound

Schools and Adolescent Development

Characteristics of Good Schools

The Effects of School on Adolescent Development

Secondary Education (1)

Secondary education: Middle schools, junior high schools, and high schools

Almost all American adolescents are enrolled in school.

Enrollment varies in developing countries.

Secondary Education (2)

Figure 6.1: The proportion of male and female adolescents in selected countries who are enrolled in secondary school.

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Figure 1

The broader context of U.s. Secondary Education (1)

Virtually all adolescents 14 to 17 are enrolled in school.

In 1930, only half of this group were students.

In 1900, only 1 in 10 adolescents were students.

Adolescents spend more days in school each year.

Adolescents remain in school for more years than in previous eras.

The broader context of U.s. Secondary Education (2)

Figure 6.2: The proportion of the 14- to 17-year-old population enrolled in school increased dramatically between 1910 and 1940, continued to increase until 1970, and then leveled off. Today, more than 95% of individuals this age are in school.

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The Origins of Secondary Education (1)

The rise in secondary education in American was the result of several historical and social trends that converged at the turn of the twentieth century:

Industrialization

Urbanization

Immigration

The Origins of Secondary Education (2)

Before compulsory secondary education, high schools were for the elite.

By 1920s, educators called for curricular reform to match changes in social composition of schools.

Focus on intellectual training

New focus on preparing youth for life in modern society (roles of work and citizenship)

Comprehensive high school: General education, college preparation, and vocational education all housed under one roof

School Reform: Past and Present (1)

Many school reforms occurred over the years, such as focus on math and science during the 1950s in response to the former Soviet Union’s perceived superiority in those areas.

No Child Left Behind

The law mandates that all states ensure that all students, regardless of economic circumstances, achieve academic proficiency on standardized annual tests.

Schools that repeatedly fail face losing funding and closing.

Social promotion: Promoting students from one grade to the next automatically, regardless of their school performance

School Reform: Past and Present (2)

Problems with No Child Left Behind:

Not enough resources

Teaching to the test—subjects and skills not on the test at risk for being cut or ignored

Impossible to assess critical thinking through standardized tests

Critical thinking: Thinking that involves analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting information, rather than simply memorizing it

No common set of standards—“Gaming the system” through low standards

Reporting school-wide average scores without revealing the huge gaps between low- and high-performing students

School Reform: Past and Present (3)

The Obama administration attempted to fix many of the problems of No Child Left Behind.

Stressed the need to have high standards for all students

Stressed the need for a common set of standards across all 50 states

“Race to the Top” competition, which had little more impact on high school student achievement than No Child Left Behind

Encouraged schools to develop better ways of evaluating teachers, helping teachers to improve their classroom skills, and replacing poor teachers with better ones

School Reform: Past and Present (4)

The Trump administration appointed a Secretary of Education who is focused on giving parents more ability to choose their child’s school.

Wants to force schools to improve to compete for students

Government-funded education vouchers for use at conventional, charter, private (including religious) schools

Critics of this approach worry it will drain money from public school districts and create wider gaps in quality between schools for affluent children and schools for poor children.

What Should Schools Teach? (1)

Standards-based reform: Policies designed to improve achievement by holding schools and students to a predetermined set of standards measured by achievement tests

Common core: Proposed set of standards in language arts and mathematics that all American schools would be expected to use

Difficult to establish the standards

Problems when a large proportion of high school seniors do not pass standardized graduation examinations

Economic, social, and political costs of holding back large numbers of students

What Should Schools Teach? (2)

Increasing numbers of parents began to look at other options:

Charter schools: Public schools that have been given the autonomy to establish their own curricula and teaching practices

Home schooling

School vouchers: Government-subsidized vouchers that can be used for private school tuition

Education in the Inner Cities

The education crisis is particularly urgent within inner-city public schools.

10 percent of U.S. high schools produce 50 percent of dropouts.

One-third of Black and Latino students attend these schools.

Only one-sixth of students are proficient in science.

Concentration of poverty has produced a population of students with problems few schools are equipped to handle.

Administrative bureaucracies impede reform.

Students report less of a sense of “belonging” to their schools.

Fewer inner-city job opportunities have left students with little incentive to remain in school or put effort into academic pursuits.

The Social Organization of Schools (1)

School Size and Class Size

Large schools have a more varied curriculum and more diverse extracurricular activities.

Student achievement is higher in more intimate schools.

Schools within schools: Subdivisions of the student body within large schools created to foster feelings of belongingness

Smaller school size encourages participation, thus developing skills and abilities.

Smaller school students are more likely to hold leadership positions, do things that make them feel confident and diligent.

Academically marginal students are outsiders in bigger schools.

More inequality of educational experiences exists in larger schools.

The Social Organization of Schools (2)

Variations in Class Size

Research findings have been misinterpreted by politicians who began emphasizing importance of small classes.

Adolescents learn as much in classes of 20 to 40 students.

Tutoring and highly individualized instruction is exception.

The Problem of Overcrowding

It interferes with the delivery of high-quality education.

Nearly 15 percent of secondary schools are overcrowded.

An additional 8 percent are severely overcrowded.

Attempts to reduce the adverse effects have had mixed results.

Age Grouping and School Transitions (1)

Early twentieth century

Most school districts separated students into an elementary school (6 or 8 grades) and a secondary school (4 or 6 grades)

Junior high school: educational institution designed during the early era of public secondary education, in which young adolescents are schooled separately from older adolescents

Late twentieth century

Middle school: educational institution housing 7th- and 8th-grade students along with adolescents who are 1 or 2 years younger

More recent years

Return of a two-school model (usually K through 8 and 9 through 12)

Age Grouping and School Transitions (2)

The Transition into Secondary School

As children move into middle school or junior high, school grades, school engagement, and academic motivation drop, but scores on standardized achievement tests do not decline.

The drop in grades may reflect changes in student motivation and grading practices, not in student knowledge.

The drop in academic motivation and achievement could be due to school transition itself or to the nature of the differences between elementary school and middle or junior high school.

Age Grouping and School Transitions (3)

How Secondary Schools Differ from Elementary Schools

Compared to elementary school teachers, middle school/junior high teachers have the following characteristics:

They are less likely to trust their students, more likely to emphasize discipline.

They are more likely to believe that students’ abilities are fixed.

They are less likely to feel confident about their teaching ability

There is a developmental mismatch between what adolescents need and what they get from teachers.

Bureaucratic organization and anonymity of junior high schools may have negative effect on teachers.

Cultural stereotypes may have negative influence on teachers.

Age Grouping and School Transitions (4)

Individual Differences in the Extent of Transitional Problems

Not all students experience the same degree of stress.

Students who have more academic and psychosocial problems before making a school transition have more problems coping with it.

Poor, inner-city adolescents may be particularly at risk for the negative effects of school transitions.

Boys, ethnic minority students, and students from poor families are more likely to become disengaged from school.

Parental support and involvement are associated with better adjustment during school transitions.

Tracking (1)

Tracking: Practice of separating students into ability groups, so that they take classes with peers at the same skill level

Schools that use tracking may be more exclusive or more inclusive regarding the highest track, or they may be “meritocratic.”

Pros and Cons of Tracking

Allows teachers to design class lessons that are more finely tuned to students’ abilities

Account for mastery of certain basic skills

Remedial track students generally receive poorer quality education, not just different education

Socialize only with peers from same track

May discriminate against poor and ethnic minorities

Tracking (2)

On the Wrong Track

Early track placements result in a difficult-to-change educational trajectory.

Tracking in one class may lead to tracking in others due to scheduling.

More advanced tracking has more challenging instruction, better teaching, critical thinking classroom activities.

Net effect is an increase in preexisting academic differences.

Some exceptions exist, with lower tracks taught by exceptional teachers.

Tracking (3)

The Effects of Tracking on Student Achievement

Studies of the effect of tracking have produced a complicated answer with variety of shown effects.

Both implementation and “detracking” are controversial.

Teachers may sort based on ability without formal tracking; this results in raised expectations and evaluations for high-ability students and lowered expectations and evaluations for low-ability students

Tracking (4)

Students at the Extremes

Gifted students: Students who are unusually talented in some aspect of intellectual performance

Learning disability: Difficulty with academic tasks that cannot be traced to an emotional problem or sensory dysfunction

Dyslexia: Impaired ability in reading or spelling

Dysgraphia: Impaired ability in handwriting

Dyscalculia: Impaired ability in arithmetic

Mainstreaming: The integration of adolescents who have educational handicaps into regular classrooms

Tracking (5)

Students at the Extremes, continued

There are pros and cons of mainstreaming for both gifted adolescents and students with special needs.

Big fish-little pond effect: The reason that individuals who attend high school with high-achieving peers feel worse about themselves than comparably successful individuals with lower-achieving peers

Adolescents with a specific learning disability may benefit from extra instruction in study skills, note-taking, and proofreading.

They may also need help with motivation and dealing with social and emotional difficulties and coping with self-esteem issues.

Tracking (6)

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A biologically based psychological disorder characterized by impulsivity, inattentiveness, and restlessness, often in school situations

In 50 to 70% of cases, ADHD persists into adolescence.

Three subtypes exist: predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive/impulsive, and combined.

ADHD is a biological disorder with a very strong genetic component.

It is frequently treated with stimulant medication.

One concern is that medication is shared with nonafflicted friends.

Ethnic Composition (1)

Landmark U.S. Supreme Court rulings legally ended segregation of schools (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 1954; 1955).

Effects of Desegregation

Desegregation has little impact on achievement levels of either minority or White adolescents.

Minority youngster’s self-esteem is higher when they attend schools in which they are in the majority.

Students feel stronger attachment to schools that draw directly from the local community and where more of their classmates share an ethnic group.

Students feel more engaged, safer, less lonely, and less harassed in relatively more diverse multiethnic schools than less balanced schools.

Cross-ethnic friendships are more common among male than female students, in part because males are more likely to be involved in athletics.

Ethnic Composition (2)

Figure 6.3: Students who are part of a very small racial minority in their school (few than 15% of the students) are less likely to feel attached to school, which increases depression and substance use.

Figure 4

Alternatives to Public Schools

To encourage better schools and competition among schools for better students, some policy makers want parents to have more choices of where to send their children.

Government-subsidized school vouchers allow parents to “purchase” education at a school of one’s choosing—private or public.

States may allow development of more independent charter schools.

Private schools are not necessarily more effective than public schools.

Homeschooled adolescents with weak religious ties are three times more likely to be behind grade level, half as likely to do extracurriculars.

Family background is more powerful influence than quality of schools.

Social capital: The interpersonal resources available to an adolescent or family

Classroom Climate (1)

Various aspects of the school climate have important effects on youngsters’ learning and achievement:

How teachers interact with students

How class time is used

The standards and expectations teachers hold for students

All of these aspects are more important than school size, ethnic composition, approach to ability group, or age group combination.

Classroom Climate (2)

The Best Classroom Climate for Adolescents

Responsive and demanding

Positive with supportive and demanding teachers

Moderate degree of structure

Cooperation, not competition, between students

Respectful and caring teachers

Classroom Climate (3)

Figure 6.4: A recent study of Colombian students found that a positive school climate contributes to, and results from, students’ positive outlook on life, and that both increase adolescents’ prosocial behavior.

Figure 4

Classroom Climate (4)

School Climate and Bullying

Bullying is more likely in schools with unsupportive, harsh teachers, disorderly climate, and little respect for students.

The role of school climate has raised legal questions about schools’ legal responsibility for failing to take steps to prevent bullying.

Experts recommend implementing evidence-based, anti-bullying programs, mental health services referrals, training for personnel, policies that make it easier to report bullying, and prompt investigations of bullying.

Teacher Expectations and Student Performance (1)

Strong correlation exists between teacher expectations and student performance because teachers’ expectations:

Are often accurate reflections of their students’ abilities (which explains approximately 80% the relation)

Create self-fulfilling prophecies (which explains approximately 20% the relation)

Might be stronger for academically weaker students

Teacher Expectations and Student Performance (2)

Teachers may do the following:

Consciously and unconsciously base their expectations in part on students’ ethnic and socioeconomic background

Call on affluent or White students more

Have lower expectations and hold stereotypes about minorities

Give undeserved positive feedback to minority students who have done poor work

Make it difficult for minority students to attain academic accomplishment that permits upwards mobility

High achievement expectations from parents helps protect students from the impact of low teacher expectations.

Teacher Expectations and Student Performance (3)

Figure 6.5: When asked to evaluate a second instance of student misbehavior, teachers were more likely to be troubled by it and to recommend harsh discipline when they were led to believe that the student was Black.

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Figure 5

The Importance of Student Engagement (1)

Students and teachers influence each other.

Effective teachers can engage and excite their students, and engaged and excited students can motivate their teachers to be more effective.

Student engagement: The extent to which students are psychologically committed to learning and mastering the material rather than simply completing the assigned work

Student disengagement comes in different forms, including behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively.

The Importance of Student Engagement (2)

Table 6.1: Typology of Engagement

Engagement Type	Enjoy Affective	Put in effort Behavioral	See value Cognitive	Example
Purposefully engaged	No	yes	Yes	A student studies hard for a calculus test because he knows that understanding the material and doing well on the test are important to achieving his future goals; he does not enjoy the studying however.
Fully engaged	Yes	Yes	Yes	A student enjoys creating a documentary film project with her peers because she cares deeply about the topic, and she sees the assignment as a worthwhile use of her time. She spends a lot of time and effort working on this project.
Rationally engaged	No	No	Yes	A student sees the importance of learning about global warming in Earth Science class, but he is not willing to exert effort required to concentrate and take notes because he finds the teacher’s lecture to be excruciatingly boring.
Busily engaged	No	Yes	No	A student works hard to get her homework completed accurately, though she does not particularly care about the material or the questions. Nor does she see their relevance to her interests and aspirations. She finds the prefabricated worksheets she must complete to be boring and monotonous.

The Importance of Student Engagement (3)

Table 6.1: Typology of Engagement, continued

Engagement Type	Enjoy Affective	Put in effort Behavioral	See value Cognitive	Example
Pleasurably engaged	Yes	No	No	A student enjoys listening to his teacher relay stories about World War I; however, he does not value this topic or see it as relevant. He does not take notes, he does not concentrate on the details the teacher shares, and he allows his mind to wander occasionally.
Mentally engaged	Yes	No	Yes	A student enjoys working on her project in art class and she cares about mastering the technique; however, it is the day before spring break and she is not putting a lot of thought or effort into her project. She is just trying to get it done quickly so the class can have a party
Recreationally engaged	Yes	Yes	No	A student works hard to help his group-mates score more points than any other group during a game in class; he is thinking hard and reviewing his notes carefully to find the correct answers, and he is having fun with his peers, enjoying the game and the friendly competition; however, when asked if he values either the material the class is reviewing or the skills he may be developing by playing the game, he says, “No. They are not connected to my larger goals.”

Boring Classes, Bored Students (1)

Figure 6.6: Only about one-sixth of students are highly engaged in high school. About one-third are disengaged either behaviorally, emotionally, or cognitively.

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Figure 6

Boring Classes, Bored Students (2)

Students frequently say that they are bored while in school—especially among high school students, who find school more boring than do middle school students.

The make-work, routinized, rigid structure of most classrooms, with teacher lecture rather than student discussion, alienates many adolescents from school and undermines their desire to achieve.

Student boredom is also found in high-achieving schools.

Research shows that students are engaged when teachers provide opportunities for students to genuinely display their competencies, when schools facilitate students’ feelings of belonging to their school, and when students are assigned work that is “authentic.”

Boring Classes, Bored Students (3)

Figure 6.7: Studies of fluctuations in adolescents’ mood over the course of the day show that students—especially high school students—feel bored most of the time they are in school.

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Figure 7

Boring Classes, Bored Students (3)

Out-of-School Influences on Student Engagement

The peer group’s support, values, and norms also exert an important influence.

Adolescents whose friends support academic achievement are more likely to feel connected to school.

Students whose parents are involved in school activities, who encourage and emphasize academic success, and who use authoritative parenting practices do better in secondary school than their peers.

School Violence (1)

1 in 4 American students has been the victim of violence in or around school.

1 in 6 is worried about being physically attacked or hurt while in school.

Violence is especially common in middle schools and more common in overcrowded schools in poor urban neighborhoods.

Responding to violence:

Zero-tolerance: A get-tough approach to adolescent misbehavior that responds seriously or excessively to the first infraction

Some writers contend this policy has not helped.

School Violence (2)

A task force of the American Psychological Association offered the following recommendations:

Define infractions carefully.

Train staff in how to respond appropriately.

Reserve suspension or expulsion for only the most serious disruptive behavior.

Require school police officers to have training in adolescent development.

Implement preventive measures to improve school climate and increase students’ attachment to school.

School Violence (3)

Lethal School Violence

Widely publicized and significant, but rare

Adolescents more likely to be killed at home or in the community than in school

Almost impossible to predict

Most effective policies:

Limiting access to guns

Identifying and treating young people with mental health problems

Creating school climates were students feel responsible for each other (and are prepared to take action if they hear/see something)

School Violence (4)

Figure 6.8: Impulsive adolescents are more likely to be violent in school, but the degree to which the student body feels connected makes a big difference. In this study, impulsive students were twice as likely to carry a gun in schools with alienated students than in schools with more attached ones.

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Figure 8

The College-Bound (1)

Early postsecondary institutions were typically small, private, liberal arts academies, often with a strong theological emphasis.

A host of other types of institutions developed: large private universities, technical colleges, professional schools, publicly financed state universities, land grant colleges, urban universities, and two-year community colleges.

In 1900, only 4 percent of the 18- to 21-year- old population was enrolled in college, but today, more than two-thirds of high-school graduates will enroll.

American postsecondary education is distinguished by its diversity and accessibility.

Fewer than 60% of all students who enroll in a four-year college complete their degree there within 6 years.

THE College Bound (2)

Figure 6.9: Rates of college enrollment immediately after high school have risen over time. (Data were not separated out for Asian American students prior to 2003.)

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Figure 9

The Non-College Bound (1)

Secondary schools are geared almost exclusively toward the college-bound, even though one-third of adolescents do not go on to college.

Because of educational disparities caused by tracking, students in vocational or general tracks find that their high schools have not prepared them for the world of work.

The replacement of manufacturing jobs by minimum-wage service jobs means there is less chance of making a decent living without college experience.

Rates of depression are significantly higher among individuals who are neither in school nor steadily employed.

The Non-College Bound (2)

Figure 6.10: Individuals with more years of education earn more and are more likely to be employed. One important change that has taken place in recent years is a decline in the value of going to college but not finishing. Completing a few years of college without getting a degree provides little advantage over just graduating from high school.

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Figure 10

Characteristics of Good Schools

Experts have a fair amount of consensus about what good schools do:

Emphasize intellectual activities

Employ teachers who are strongly committed to students and have enough freedom to teach effectively

Well-integrated into the communities they serve

Composed of classrooms with good climate, where students are active participants

Staffed by teachers who are well-qualified and who have received specific training in teaching adolescents

The Effects of School on Adolescent Development

Staying in school has positive effects on future earnings and intellectual development.

It is unclear whether and how schools impact psychosocial development.

Students do not view school solely in terms of its academic agenda.

Students’ experiences within a school can vary widely based on what track they are on, the peer group they belong to, and the extracurricular activities they participate in.

Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images

Secondary Education (2) text alternative

A bar graph shows the enrollment of girls and boys enrolled in secondary school in 16 countries. The numbers are approximately as follows: 1) Afghanistan, 35% girls, 61% boys; 2) Brazil, 83% girls, 80% boys; 3) Egypt, 82% girls, 81% boys; 4) Ethiopia, 30% girls, 32% boys; 5) France, 100% girls, 98% boys; 6) Iraq, 44% girls, 51% boys; 7) Japan, 99% girls, 99% boys; 8) Kenya, 44% girls, 44% boys; 9) Mexico, 69% girls, 66% boys; 10) Pakistan, 29% girls, 39% boys; 11) Philippines, 75% girls, 62% boys; 12) Saudi Arabia, 78% girls, 82% boys; 13) Thailand, 82% girls, 83% boys; 14) Uganda, 21% girls, 20% boys; 15) Ukraine, 92% girls, 92% boys; and 16) United States, 90% girls, 87% boys.

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The broader context of U.s. Secondary Education (2) text alternative

A line graph shows the percentage of 14- to 17-year olds enrolled in school between 1890 and 1970. In 1890, only about 8% of children in that age group were enrolled in school, increasing to about 15% in 1910, greatly increasing to about 71% in 1940, 85% in 1960, and 92% in 1970.

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Teacher Expectations and Student Performance (3) text alternative

A bar chart compares how teachers responded when asked to evaluate first and second infractions of students they were led to believe were White and students they were led to believe were Black. Ratings are given from 1 to 7.

For a first infraction, teachers rated their level of “feeling troubled” as being 4.4 for both White and Black students.

For a second infraction, teachers rated their level of “feeling troubled” as being 4.5 for White students and 5.5 for Black students.

For a first infraction, teachers rated the need for disciplinary action at a level of 3.6 for White students and at 3.8 for Black students.

For a second infraction, teachers rated the need for disciplinary action at a level of 3.9 for White students and at 5.2 for Black students.

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Boring Classes, Bored Students (1) text alternative

A bar graph showing the percentage of students who are engaged in school behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively. These levels for all three types of engagement are measured on a scale of zero for neutral to positive 1.5 for highly engaged and minus 1.5 for disengaged.

According to the graph, about 46% of students are only moderately engaged, with all three categories of engagement falling near zero; about 17% of students are highly engaged, with all three categories of engagement falling between positive 0.5 and positive 1.5; 14% of students are minimally engaged, with all three categories of engagement falling between negative .05 and negative 1; 10% of students are emotionally disengaged, with emotional engagement at negative 1, while cognitive and behavioral engagement are positive between 0.5 and 0.75; and 12% of students are cognitively disengaged, with cognitive engagement at negative .07, while behavioral and emotional engagement are positive0.35 and 0.55 respectively.

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Boring Classes, Bored Students (3) text alternative

A line graph comparing 5th to 8th graders and 9th to 12th graders in terms of their mood over the course of a day. 5th to 8th graders are neutral between 8:00 and 9:00 a.m., somewhat bored between 10:00 and 11:00 a.m., neutral between noon and 3:00 p.m., somewhat excited between 4:00 and 5:00 p.m., neutral between 6:00 and 7:00 p.m., and somewhat bored between 8:00 and 9:00 p.m. In contrast 9th through 12th graders are more bored between 8:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m., neutral between 2:00 and 3:00 p.m., more excited than 5th to 8th graders between 4:00 and 7:00 p.m., and neutral rather than bored between 8:00 and 9:00 p.m.

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School Violence (4) text alternative

A line graph compares self-reported student impulsivity and school connectedness with likelihood of carrying a weapon to school. Students with school connectedness one standard deviation above mean were slightly more likely to carry a weapon to school the more they reported impulsiveness (ranging between .04 and .08 on the likelihood scale), while students with school connectedness one standard deviation below mean were much more likely to carry a weapon to school the more they reported impulsiveness (ranging from .03 to .18 on the likelihood scale).

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THE College Bound (2) text alternative

A line graph shows percentages of college enrollment among Black, Hispanic, Asian, White, and total students between 1990 and 2015. Enrollment among Black students has risen from about 44% in 1990 to about 61% in 2015; it has risen among Hispanic students from about 54% in 1990 to about 66% in 2014; it has risen among White students from about 62% in 1990 to about 68% in 2015; and it has risen among Asian students, for whom data was not separated out until 2003, from about 80% in 2003 to 88% in 2015. The total number of students enrolled in college immediately after high school has risen from about 60% in 1990 to 67% in 2015.

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The Non-College Bound (2) text alternative

A bar chart shows both the unemployment rate in 2016 and the median weekly earnings in 2016, among people who have achieved 8 levels of educational attainment. According to the chart, the unemployment rate for those with a doctoral degree was 1.6%, while median weekly earnings were $1,664; the unemployment rate for those with a professional degree was 1.6%, while median weekly earnings were $1,745; the unemployment rate for those with a master’s degree was 2.4%, while median weekly earnings were $1,380; the unemployment rate for those with a bachelor’s degree was 2.7%, while median weekly earnings were $1,156; the unemployment rate for those with an associate’s degree was 3.6%, while median weekly earnings were $819; the unemployment rate for those with some college, but no degree was 4.4%, while median weekly earnings were $756; the unemployment rate for those with a high school diploma was 5.2%, while median weekly earnings were $692; and the unemployment rate for those with less than a high school diploma was 7.4%, while median weekly earnings were $504. The average unemployment rate of all workers was 4% and the average median weekly earnings were $885.

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