final paper, students are required to write a minimum five-page paper (not including title, references, or abstract). See Legislation paper Instructions for details

Running Head: AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 1

Air Pollution in the United States: History, Health Impacts, and Public Policy

Student Name

National University

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 2

Air Pollution in the United States: History, Health Impact, and Public Policy

Introduction

Clean air is vital in protecting the health of the public. The negative health effects of air

pollution are numerous; particulate matter < 10 microns in diameter (PM10) are responsible for

increased risk of upper respiratory tract problems and nasal irritation. The most dangerous type

of pollutants, those less than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5), penetrate further into the

respiratory tract, greatly increasing the risk of heart attack, stroke, cancer, asthma, and many

other ailments (American Heart Association, 2015). Air pollution of PM2.5 has been shown to

be the leading environmental risk factor for all disease in the United States (Tessum et al., 2019,

p. 6001). Other toxins, generated mainly from the burning of fuels such as wood, coal, oil, and

gasoline, include black carbon, ozone gas, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. These pollutants

contribute to the development of several diseases, including bronchitis, hypertension, and

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (Environmental Defense Fund, N.D.). Exposure

to air pollutants are especially dangerous to children, as their growing lungs and elevated air

intake make them especially vulnerable to asthma and other respiratory disease throughout their

life (American Lung Association, 2019). Pregnant women are also at heightened risk of

complications from exposure to dirty air; pollution, especially when the particulate matter is <

PM2.5, is shown to correlate with low birth weight and preterm birth (Stieb, Chen, Eshoul &

Judek, 2012, p. 100).

History of Air Quality in the United States

Several major pollution events have occurred in this country which ultimately led to

government interventions through policy and legislative action. Many of these events have been

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 3

caused by sudden temperature inversions, a meteorological phenomenon in which the normal

gradient of cold and warm air is reversed, causing cool air to become trapped under a layer of

warm air (Arizona Department of Environmental Quality, N.D.). This process results in heavily

polluted air being trapped near the ground, where it wreaks havoc on the health of the

population. One such event occurred in 1948 in Donora, PA, where emissions from a zinc

smelting plant engulfed the town, killing 20 and causing more than 1,400 of the 14,000 residents

to seek medical treatment. This event was the worst air pollution disaster in U.S. history at the

time (Boisoneault, 2018). During the week of Thanksgiving in 1966, a similar event occurred in

New York City, lasting almost the entire week, causing at least 168 deaths, with other estimates

as high as 400 deaths (Holzworth, 1972, p. 445). Three years later, during the weekend after the

first moon landing in 1969, sulfur dioxide released from industrial plants in Gary, IN and East

Chicago caused a widespread acid rain storm which killed wildlife, destroyed lawns, and caused

trees to lose their leaves. Although no deaths were reported from the storm, there may have been

long-term effects on the health of the residents of the area (Delaware Department of Natural

Resources and Environmental Control, N.D.). Throughout the 1960’s and 1970’s, massive smog

episodes repeatedly shrouded Los Angeles, CA in dense clouds of dangerous polluted air. These

episodes often lasted for weeks at a time, exposing the public to enormous amounts of dangerous

toxic particulates (Masters, 2011). These events, in addition to several others, led some local and

state authorities to attempt to control pollution through public policy. However, without

universal federal standards, controlling pollution and industrial emissions was extremely

difficult. Air quality issues, in part, led to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency

by the Richard Nixon Administration in 1970 (Rothman, 2017). The goal of this new agency

was to protect the health of both the American population and the natural environment by setting

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 4

federal standards; these standards were meant to provide a “cleaner, healthier environment for

the American people” (Environmental Protection Agency, 2019a).

Disparities in Air Quality

Since the industrial revolution, there have been socioeconomic and racial disparities in

exposure to industrial air pollution. As of today, more than 130 million Americans live in areas

with air quality below the levels deemed by the EPA as acceptable (Li, Konisky & Zirogiannis,

2019, p. 2). Due to the fact that the heaviest amounts of pollutants are concentrated in industrial

zones, there are ethnic and racial disparities in the levels of exposure to poor air. One national

study, which attempted to assign the ‘pollution burdens’ and ‘pollution advantages’ of different

national demographics, found that Black and Hispanic Americans suffer pollution burdens of

56% and 63% respectively, while non-Hispanic Whites enjoy a pollution advantage of at least

17% over both groups. The study acknowledges that while overall pollution exposure has

declined significantly of the last several decades for all three demographics, the disparity in

exposure remains significant (Tessum et al., 2019, 6005). While some of the elevated pollution

exposure is due to ethnic minorities disproportionately residing in urban areas, which have

higher vehicle exhaust, this does not account for all of the existing disparities. A study which

examined NO2 levels throughout all 50 states found that, even in suburban and rural

environments, minority populations were still exposed to pollutants at far higher rates than

whites. In all settings (urban, suburban, rural), nonwhites are exposed to 38% higher

concentrations of NO2 than whites. With 87 million non-white residents in the U.S., this higher

exposure results in ~7,000 more deaths from ischemic heart disease annually in minority

populations (Clark, Millet & Marshall, 2014, p. 2).

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 5

Other factors act as determinants of average exposure to pollutants as well. Those who

live below the poverty line have more than 3% higher average exposure, including higher

exposure to 11 of the 14 most dangerous pollutant particulates. Those without a high school

education have about a 10% higher rate of exposure than those with college educations,

including 13 of the 14 worst particulates. Those who are unemployed have about 2.3% greater

overall PM2.5 exposure than those who are employed (Bell & Ibisu, 2012, p. 1701-1702).

Legislation

Attempts to control pollution at the federal level began in the mid 1950’s with the first

Act Pollution Control Act of 1955. While it was an important early step in the fight against

pollution, the bill focused more on gathering information and researching the impacts of

pollution on health. The act did not set national emissions standards, mainly because congress

believed that those issues should be left to the states and local municipalities (Schnelle Jr, Dunn

& Ternes, 2015, p. 164). This legislation was followed by the initial Clean Air Act of 1963 and

the Air Quality Act of 1967; however, similar to the first legislation, these did not set national

standards for emissions. They did set guidelines and address interstate transportation of

pollutants, but it was not until the landmark Clean Air Act of 1970 that major improvements

were made. This legislation finally addressed the enormous amounts of toxic pollutants being

released into the air. 42 U.S.C. §7401 et seq. (1970), the Clean Air Act, set regulations for

emissions for both stationary and mobile emissions that each state would be required to meet.

The ultimate goal of the legislation was to achieve safe national ambient air quality standards

(NAAQS) and establish implementation plans for each state to meet these standards

(Environmental Protection Agency, 2019b). Small updates were made to the law in 1977, but

the next major milestone in pollution control was in 1990, when several amendments were added

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 6

to the Clean Air Act. These amendments expanded the authority of the federal government to

enforce the regulations on emissions, addressed the issue of acid deposition into the atmosphere,

and added nearly 200 new toxins to the list of controlled pollutive substances. These measures

all but eliminated acid rain in the U.S., massively reduced ground-level ozone gasses, and are

considered a pivotal moment in reducing airborne toxins and improving public health

(Manufacturers of Emission Control Association, 2020).

Effects of Legislation on Public Health, Exposure Disparities, and Economic Burden

It is difficult to determine the exact number of lives saved by any air pollution legislation;

however, EPA estimates are that since the inception of the initial Clean Air Act, millions of lives

have been saved due to improvements in air quality. It is believed that in 2011, 160,000 deaths

were prevented, and that by our current year, 2020, more than 230,000 lives annually will be

saved by reductions in air pollution (Tucker, 2011). While these numbers could be up for

debate, the actual reduction in pollution is not. Just some of the positive impacts of the

legislation were: ground level ozone reduced by more than 25%, a reduction in sulfur dioxide

(the causative agent of acid rain) by more than 70%, air mercury levels reduced by more than

45%, and lead air pollution reduced by more than 90% (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2012).

All of these reductions have amounted to an enormous rise in productivity and value to the

United States economy. The cost of establishing and enforcing the regulations of the legislation

are estimated to represent about 3% of the total economic benefits. This means that while the

annual costs of enforcement has remained between $20-25 billion since 1970 (Holladay, 2011),

the benefit to the national economy is estimated to be as high as $27.6 trillion during the same

time period (Yang, Matus, Paltsev & Reilly, 2005, p. 22). Although there have been significant

gains made in reducing gross particulate emissions, pollution continues to be a serious economic

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 7

burden; it is estimated that in 2014, pollution accounted for a 5% hit to the GDP, or about $790

billion (Robinson, 2019). This economic burden is mostly attributed to loss of worker

productivity due to illness, medical costs, and years of life lost (YLL).

While racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic inequalities certainly still exist in 2020 in regard

to air pollution exposure, there have been major improvements in these disparities. Research

released just this year has found that ambient particulate pollution PM2.5 in African American

communities is now nearly on par with white communities, and that communities with majority

African American residents have actually seen a greater reduction in PM2.5 pollution than in any

other population since regulations were established (Currie, Voorheis & Walker, 2020). The

researchers specifically credit the Clean Air Act as the biggest contributor to these disparity

reductions, attributing 60% of the pollution decline to the measures in this legislation. Satellite

imagery from 2014 has also shown improvements in pollution levels across the entire country,

including regions with large minority populations. While there are still large collections of

particulates in some regions of the country, they are mainly over large metropolitan areas,

affecting all residents, both urban and suburban (Main, 2014).

Conclusion

While air pollution continues to burden the United States in many ways, great strides

have been made in the battle. Work still needs to be done to decrease emissions, especially of

PM2.5 materials, but legislation such as the Clean Air Act have caused significant improvements

in air quality throughout the country. The focus going forward must be on continuing to address

the pollution exposure disparities in underserved communities, including minority communities

and those stricken with high poverty/low socioeconomic challenges. It has been shown

repeatedly since 1970 that every dollar invested in research, regulation, and enforcement of air

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 8

quality standards yields far greater value to the health and prosperity of the nation, and

investment into these matters must continue to be a priority at the federal level.

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 9

References

American Heart Association. (2015, July 31). Air pollution and heart disease, stroke. Retrieved

from https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/consumer-healthcare/what-is-cardiovascular-

disease/air-pollution-and-heart-disease-stroke

American Lung Association. (2019, April 17). Children and air pollution. Retrieved from

https://www.lung.org/our-initiatives/healthy-air/outdoor/air-pollution/children-and-air-

pollution.html

Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (N.D.) Temperature inversions impact air

quality. Retrieved from https://legacy.azdeq.gov/environ/air/ozone/Inversion%20Info.pdf

Bell, M. L., & Ebisu, K. (2012). Environmental inequality in exposures to airborne particulate

matter components in the United States. Environmental health perspectives, 120(12),

1699-1704.

Boisoneault, L. (2018, October 26). The deadly Donora smog of 1948 spurred environmental

protection- but have we forgotten the lesson? Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved from

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/deadly-donora-smog-1948-spurred-

environmental-protection-have-we-forgotten-lesson-180970533/

Clark, L. P., Millet, D. B., & Marshall, J. D. (2014). National patterns in environmental injustice

and inequality: outdoor NO 2 air pollution in the United States. PloS one, 9(4), e94431.

Currie, J., Voorheis, J., & Walker, R. (2020). What Caused Racial Disparities in Particulate

Exposure to Fall? New Evidence from the Clean Air Act and Satellite-Based Measures of

Air Quality (No. w26659). National Bureau of Economic Research.

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References (cont.)

Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control. (N.D.) A history of air

pollution events. Retrieved from http://www.dnrec.state.de.us/DNREC2000/Divisions/

AWM/aqm/education/airqualityappx.pdf

Environmental Defense Fund. (N.D.). Health impact of air pollution. Retrieved from

https://www.edf.org/health/health-impacts-air-pollution

Environmental Protection Agency. (2019, December 19a) EPA history. Retrieved from

https://www.epa.gov/history

Environmental Protection Agency (2019, August 15b). Summary of the Clean Air Act. Retrieved

from https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act

Holladay, J. (2011, January). How do we know how much clean air is worth? NYU Institute for

Policy Integrity. Retrieved from

https://policyintegrity.org/files/publications/Valuing_the_Clean_Air_Act.pdf

Holzworth, G. C. (1972). Vertical Temperature Structure During the 1966 Thanksgiving Week

Air Pollution Episode. Monthly Weather Review, 100, 445.

Li, Z., Konisky, D. M., & Zirogiannis, N. (2019). Racial, ethnic, and income disparities in air

pollution: A study of excess emissions in Texas. PloS one, 14(8), 1-16.

Main, D. (2014, June 27). Satellite images show massive reduction in US air pollution. Popular

Science. Retrieved from https://www.popsci.com/article/science/satellite-images-show-

massive-reduction-us-air-pollution/

AIR QUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 11

References (cont.)

Manufacturers of Emission Control Association. (2020). The Clean Air Act. Retrieved from

http://www.meca.org/regulation/the-clean-air-act

Masters, N. (2011, March 17). L.A.’s smoggy past, in photos. KCET. Retrieved from

https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/las-smoggy-past-in-photos

Robinson, E. (2019, September 19). How much does air pollution cost in the U.S.? Stanford

University School of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences. Retrieved from

https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-much-does-air-pollution-cost-us#gs.vbxjtb

Rothman, L. (2017, March 22). Here’s why the Environmental Protection Agency was created.

Time Magazine. Retrieved from https://time.com/4696104/environmental-protection-

agency-1970-history/

Schnelle Jr, K. B., Dunn, R. F., & Ternes, M. E. (2015). Air pollution control technology

handbook. CRC press.

Stieb, D. M., Chen, L., Eshoul, M., & Judek, S. (2012). Ambient air pollution, birth weight and

preterm birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental research, 117, 100-

111.

Tessum, C. W., Apte, J. S., Goodkind, A. L., Muller, N. Z., Mullins, K. A., Paolella, D. A., ... &

Hill, J. D. (2019). Inequity in consumption of goods and services adds to racial–ethnic

disparities in air pollution exposure. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,

116(13), 6001-6006.

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References (cont.)

Tucker, C. (2011, May). Number of lives saved by U.S. Clean Air act continues to grow:

opponents trying to repeal protections. American Public Health Association. Retrieved

from http://thenationshealth.aphapublications.org/content/41/4/1.3

Union of Concerned Scientists. (2012, February 1). The Clean Air Act. Retrieved from

https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/clean-air-act