Chinese Mythology and Tales

ufactured from insects known as gu. The graph appears as early as the Shang oracle-

bone inscriptions and is a picture of three virulent insects in a container stinging one

another, a process that yields an extremely toxic substance. Its many uses and knowl-

edge of its antidotes were associated with wu-shamans and others who were considered

masters of black magic.25 Nine-Tail Foxes were generally regarded as auspicious crea-

tures. In one ancient myth, Yu the Great was seeking an omen that he marry and en-

countered a white fox with nine tails, which he interpreted as a sign that he would be

successful. This fox sometimes appears in Han art along with the Queen Mother of the

West [nos. 65, 275] in her later role as a goddess of immortality at Mount Kunlun. Ac-

cording to the Debates in the White Tiger Hall (Baihutong, late 1st cent. c.e.), the fox’s

nine tails symbolize abundant progeny.26

14. G U A N G U A N - B I R D ( G U A N G U A N ) ÈÈ There is a bird here on

Green-Hills Mountain whose form resembles a dove and that makes a sound like a man

shouting. It is called the Guanguan. Wearing a part of it from the belt will prevent mental

confusion.27 The Compendium of Mr. Lü considered this bird’s flesh a delicacy

when roasted. The poet Tao Qian (365–427) also celebrated this bird in the twelfth of

his “Thirteen Poems upon Reading the Guideways through Mountains and Seas” (Du

shanhaijing shisan shou, 422):

On Green-Hills Mountain is a unique bird

That speaks and appears of its own accord.

It was born to help those in confusion,

Not to caution the Noble Man.28

15. R E D R U - F I S H ( C H I R U ) ™a The Eminent River flows forth from

Green-Hills Mountain southward into Carp-Wings Lake. Many Red Ru-Fish are found in

the lake. It has the basic form of a fish with a human face and makes a sound like a man-

darin duck. Eating it will prevent scabies.29 According to another version

noted by Guo Pu, eating it will protect against epidemics.30

P L A T E V

16. M O U N T A I N G O D ( S H E N ) ´ The ten mountains from the first peak,

Shaking Mountain in the Magpie Mountains to Winnower-Tail Mountain, extend 2,950

li in length. The gods of these mountains all have the form of a bird’s body with a dragon’s

head. The proper sacrifice to them is an animal of a single color and the burial of a jade

blade. The grain o ering is glutinous rice along with a jade disc and unhulled rice. White

reeds should be used for the ceremonial mats.31 The gods of each of the guide-

ways in the Guideways through Mountains form distinct groups and often share simi-

lar physical features. They must be sacrificed to by representatives of the government,

by the local people, and especially by travelers. In earliest times, such a airs were prob-

ably carried out by wu-shamans and other ritual specialists. In the background of the

illustration is the tip of a roof, which is the artist’s anachronistic vision of a sacrificial

temple reflecting the later, more elaborate architectural style of temples. In ancient China,

such local altars and shrines were more likely outdoor stages or simple structures.

P L A T E S I V – V 8 9

of the power of goats and sheep from the early medical text The Di-

vine Farmer’s Classic of Remedies (Shennong bencaojing, late 3rd cent.

b.c.e.) where the horn of the Gu, a black ram, is recommended for

frightening o demons, tigers, and wolves as well as to eliminate

fright.22

12. C H A N G F U - B I R D ( C H A N G F U ) ij There is a bird dwelling here on Foundation Mountain whose form resembles a chicken with three

heads, six eyes, six feet, and three wings. It is called the Changfu. Eating it will prevent sleep.23

13. N I N E - T A I L F O X ( J I U W E I H U ) E¿∞ Three hundred li farther

east is Green-Hills Mountain, where much jade can be found on its south slope and green

cinnabar on its north. There is a beast here whose form resembles a fox with nine tails. It

makes a sound like a baby and is a man-eater. Whoever eats it will be protected against

insect-poison (gu).24 The ancient Chinese greatly feared a kind of poison man-

8 8 P L A T E I V

13

15

12

14

11

Kunlun, it does not possess extraordinary spiritual power here or a special connection

with any gods. Only the Dongdong is found here, which evoked Guo Pu’s pity:

Oysters contain pearls

So why not a beast?

The Dongdong is like a pig.

From what’s under its hair,

it can become deceased.

There’s no other source of its troubles:

Brought on by itself, to say the least.238

144. M O U N T A I N G O D ( S H E N ) ´ The twelve mountains of the first

guideway through the Eastern Mountains from Mount Shuzhu to Bamboo Mountain ex-

tend for 3,600 li. The gods all have a human body with a dragon’s face. The proper animal

sacrifice to them is a dog of a single color along with a prayer. Fish is used to accompany

the Er-Ritual.239 The Er-Ritual involved smearing blood on the sacrifices or

on the sacrificial vessels. To the left is the Lingling located at Mount Kongsang, begin-

ning the second guideway. It resembles an ox with tiger markings, makes a sound like

its name, and is an omen of a great drought.240

P L A T E X X V I I I

145. P E A R L - T U R T L E S ( Z H U B I E Y U ) ]oΩ Two thousand one hun-

dred eighty li southwest along the second guideway through the Eastern Mountains stands

the first peak of Vine Mountain. There are no plants or trees here. The Li River emanates

from here and flows eastward into Yu Lake. In it dwell many Pearl-Turtles. The Pearl-

Turtle’s form resembles a lung with eyes and six feet, and it possesses pearls. Its flavor is

sweet and sour. Eating it will protect against seasonal epidemics.241 The Compen-

dium of Mr. Lü considered it a delicacy among fish, and in his encomium, Guo won-

dered how it could protect itself since it was so desirable. Although illustrated here with

two eyes, in later illustrations such as the Wu Renchen portrait, it appears with four eyes.

Later textual sources mention a similar creature that has four eyes and spits out pearls,

so Hao Yixing suggested that perhaps the text here originally indicated four eyes.242

146. C H O U Y U ¶® Three hundred eighty li farther south is Exceedingly Lofty

Mountain. On its heights are many catalpa and plum trees, and at its feet are many thorny

willows. The Zayu River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellowwater River.

There is a beast dwelling here whose form resembles a rabbit but with a bird’s beak, an owl’s

eyes, and a snake’s tail. When it sees people, it falls asleep. It is called the Chouyu and makes

a sound like its name. If it is seen, it is an omen of a plague of locusts.243 This

creature only feigns sleep to protect itself, according to Guo Pu’s encomium.244

147. V E R M I L I O N - R U ( Z H U R U ) ∂c Six hundred li farther south is

Shining Mountain. There are no plants or trees here but much Water-Jade and many gi-

ant snakes. There is a beast here whose form resembles a fox with a fish’s fins. It is called

1 3 6 P L A T E S X X V I I – X X V I I I

the Zhuru and makes a sound like its name. If seen, it is an omen of

a panic in the state.245 Guo Pu believed that Water-Jade was

a kind of rock crystal.246

148. L I H U - B I R D ( L I H U ) Ó| Three hundred li farther

south is Mount Luqi. There are no plants or trees here but much gravel.

The Gravel River emanates from here and flows southward into the

Rainflood River. In it dwell many Lihu-Birds. The Lihu-Bird’s form resembles a mandarin

duck but with human feet, and it makes a sound like its name. If seen, it is an omen of many

earthwork constructions in the state.247 These public works included such projects

as excavation of river channels and the building of dikes against floods as well as con-

structing walls and other fortifications. They were a mixed blessing for the common

people, since they required conscripted labor. However, for the elite, it meant employ-

ment of o‹cials and profit from government expenditures.

149. B I B I ~~ Two thousand eighty li farther south by land and water stands Mount

Gufeng. There are no plants or trees but much metal and jade. There is a beast dwelling

P L A T E X X V I I I 1 3 7

150

148

145

147

149

146

here whose form resembles a fox but with wings. It makes a sound like a goose and is called

the Bibi. If seen, it is an omen of a great drought throughout the world.248

150. L O N G Z H I Pø Five hundred li farther south stands Beautiful-Duck Moun-

tain. On its heights are much metal and jade and at its feet are many Needle-Stones. There

is a beast here whose form resembles a fox but with nine tails, nine heads, and a tiger’s claws.

It is called the Longzhi. It makes a sound like a baby but is a man-eater.249 This

is another creature whose features are multiplied by the magic number nine. From the

description, it could be considered a kind of Nine-Tail Fox [no. 13]. Guo Pu commented

that Needle-Stone was used to make needles for medical purposes such as lancing boils.

In the Guideways, it is found only on this mountain and on Gao’s Mountain along the

first guideway through the Eastern Mountains.250

P L A T E X X I X

151. Y O U Y O U RR Five hundred li farther south stands Mount Zhen. To the

south it faces the Zhen River, and to the east is a view of Marsh Lake. There is a beast

dwelling here whose form resembles a horse with a goat’s eyes, four horns, and an ox’s

tail. It makes a sound like a barking dog and is called the Youyou. If seen, it is an omen

that deceitful guests will arrive in the state.251 Guests here refers to the itin-

erant persuaders, a class of politicians, military strategists, philosophers, fangshi-wiz-

ards, and others who traveled from one feudal court to another in search of patron-

age. Although generally willing to serve loyally any ruler who would employ them, they

also included spies, assassins, tricksters, and those who engaged in the numerous in-

trigues recorded in the literature of the Warring States. The art of correctly judging

character was thus a valued, though often elusive, skill that no one in power could a ord

to neglect. The Youyou’s superior ability to detect such dangerous people prompted

Guo Pu’s admiration:

To govern well employ the worthy.

Losing the right person will failure guarantee.

Whenever the Youyou makes an appearance

So do guests filled with dishonesty.

Hidden is the nature of this response.

Who can grasp its mystery?252

152. J I E G O U Ù_ There is a bird here on Mount Zhen whose form resembles a

wild duck but with a rat’s tail. It is adept at climbing trees and is called the Jiegou. If seen,

it is an omen of epidemics in the state.253

153. M O U N T A I N G O D ( S H E N ) ´ The seventeen mountains of the sec-

ond guideway through the Eastern Mountains from Empty-Mulberry Mountain to Mount

Zhen extend for 6,640 li. The gods all have the body of a beast and a human face with a

deer horn on its head. The proper animal sacrifice is a chicken of a single color along with

a prayer, and for the jade o ering a disc is buried.254

1 3 8 P L A T E S X X V I I I – X X I X

154. W A N H U SJ The first mountain along the third guide-

way through the Eastern Mountains is called Mount Shihu. It provides

a view northward of Mount Xiang. On its heights are much metal and

jade and at its feet are many jujube trees. There is a beast dwelling here

whose form resembles a Mi-Deer but with fish’s eyes. It is called the

Wanhu, and makes a sound like its name.255 Hao Yixing

noted that in 1800, a Chinese emissary returning by sea from the

Ryukyu Islands (modern Okinawa) recorded that when he moored at Horse-Teeth

Mountain, he was presented with two deer with short hair and eyes as small as a fish’s,

believing them to be metamorphosed fish. Hao asserted that this corresponded to the

description of the Wanhu and advanced this as yet another confirmation of the factu-

ality of the Guideways.256

155. T I G E R ( H U ) Í Eight hundred li south by water stands Fork Mountain. The

trees here are mostly peach and plum while the beasts are mostly tigers.257 Tigers,

while not quite as strange as the other creatures in the Guideways, were widely found

P L A T E X X I X 1 3 9

157

154

156

153

155

151

152

203. T I P T O E - B I R D ( Q I Z H O N G ) ◊Ê One hundred

forty li from the beginning of the tenth guideway through the Central

Mountains stands Mount Fuzhou. Among its trees are many sandalwood.

On its southern slope is much yellow gold. There is a bird here whose form

resembles an owl but with one foot and a pig’s tail. It is called the Qizhong.

If it is seen, there will be a great epidemic throughout the state.331

The Tiptoe-Bird’s name may suggest the di‹culty it must have in walk-

ing on one foot, although Hao Yixing thought it might have derived

from the Land of the Tiptoe People [no. 249] mentioned in chapter 8, “Northern Lands

beyond the Sea.” These people, however, have two feet. Guo Pu noted that they walk

only on their toes. There is also a Tiptoe Mountain recorded in chapter 4, along the

third guideway through the Eastern Mountains [see no. 156], where giant snakes live.332

204. P L O W E R ( G E N G F U ) —˜ Nine hundred li from the beginning of the

eleventh guideway through the Central Mountains stands Abundance Mountain. There is

a beast here that resembles a gibbon with red eyes, a red mouth, and a yellow body. It is

called Harmony-and-Peace (Yonghe), and if seen, there will be a great panic in the state.

The god Plower dwells here. He often roams in the depths of the Pure-and-Clear Gorge

1 5 6 P L A T E X X X V I I I

205 204

208

202

207

203

206

emitting a brilliant light whenever he emerges and returns. If seen, it is an omen that the

state will be destroyed. There are nine bells here that sound whenever there is frost. On

the heights of Abundance Mountain is much metal, and at its feet are many mulberry,

Zuo-Oak, Niu-Trees, and Jiang-Oak.333 This illustration seems to combine

Harmony-and-Peace with the god Plower by giving an ape a halo. Harmony-and-Peace

seems an inappropriate name for the beast considering its malevolent e ect. Plower ap-

pears to be similar to other gods who roam in the depths of rivers such as Encircling-

Alligator [no. 193] and Jimeng [no. 195], who are said to emit a brilliant light. Guo Pu

identified this Pure-and-Clear Gorge with a similarly named river in Xihaojiao District

in modern Henan and noted that when the god came down from the mountain into

the river, the water turned red and emitted a brilliant light. He also stated that in his

time there was a shrine here. Plower was also said to cause droughts.334

205. Z H E N - B I R D ( Z H E N ) } Nine hundred twenty li farther northeast

stands Yaobi-Stone Mountain. Among its trees are many catalpa and plum. On its north-

ern slope is much green cinnabar, and on its southern slope is much white-metal. There is

a bird here whose form resembles a pheasant. It often eats Fei-Bugs and is called the Zhen.335

This Zhen-Bird di ers from no. 194. The Fei-Bug was recorded in Zuo’s Narra-

tives as having caused disasters in the state of Lu in 722 and 665 b.c.e. It is an oval in-

sect as light as a mosquito that eats the flowering parts of rice plants and stunts their

growth, causing famine. It is also said to be malodorous, as Guo Pu noted. The Fei-Bug

di ers from the Fei [no. 166], although both names are written with the same graph.336

206. B A B Y - L A D L E B I R D ( Y I N G S H A O ) ¶c Forty li farther east stands

Mount Zhili. The Relief River emanates from here and flows southward into the Han River.

There is a bird here named the Yingshao. Its form resembles a magpie with red eyes, a red

beak, and a white body. Its tail is like a ladle, and it makes a sound like its name. There

are many Yaks and Xian-Antelope here.337 Guo Pu noted that the tail was

shaped like a wine ladle.338

207. G R E E N P L O W E R - B I R D ( Q I N G G E N G ) C— One hundred fifty

li farther northeast and then northwest stands Mount Jinli. On its heights are many pines

and cypress and many beautiful catalpa trees. On its northern slope are much green cinnabar

and much metal. Among the beasts here are many leopards and tigers. There is a bird here

whose form resembles a magpie with a blue body, a white mouth, white eyes, and a white

tail. It is called the Qinggeng. It can protect against epidemics, and it makes a sound like

its name.339

208. L I N Y Thirty li southeast stands Mount Yiku. On its heights are many Niu-

Trees and Jiang-Oak, as well as many Ju-Trees. There is a beast here whose form resem-

bles a dog with tiger’s claws and scales named the Lin. It is adept at jumping about. Eating

it can protect against the e ects of wind.340 The Ju-Tree remains unidentified.

The reference to wind here probably reflects the belief in Chinese medicine that at-

tributes a variety of maladies to the e ects of this natural phenomenon such as fever,

insanity, paralysis, apoplexy, and so on.341

P L A T E X X X V I I I 1 5 7

P L A T E X X X I X

209. T H R E E - L E G G E D T U R T L E ( S A N Z U G U I )

T¨t One hundred ninety li farther southeast stands Follow Moun-

tain. On its heights are many pines and junipers, and below is much

bamboo. The Follow River flows downward from above, becoming sub-

terranean at its feet. In it dwell many Three-Legged Turtles. The Three-

Legged Turtle has a split tail, and eating it cures insect-poisoning and

epidemic illnesses.342 Here, too, Guo Pu noted that according to Approaching

Refinement, these turtles are called Ben [see no. 188].343

210. L I Z Eighty li farther southeast stands Happy-Horse Mountain. There is a beast

here whose form resembles a porcupine, red as fiery cinnabar. It is called the Li, and if seen,

it is an omen of a great epidemic spreading throughout the state.344

211. J U R U Æp Thirty-five li farther southeast and then east stands the Mountain

That Relies on the Supreme God Di. On its heights is much jade, and at its feet is much

1 5 8 P L A T E X X X I X

213

209

210

212

211