SOL Module 4 Discussion Forum

CHAPTER 7

The Early Middle Ages

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CORONATION OF CHARLEMAGNE. The crowning of Charlemagne by the pope implied that the emperor had a spiritua l responsibility to spread and defend the fait h. (Scala/Art Resource, N.Y.)

T he establishment of Germanic kingdoms in the fifth and sixth centuries on Roman lands marked the end of the ancient world and the start of the Middle Ages, a period that spanned a thou­

sand years. During the Middle Ages the center of Western civilization shifted northward from the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea to parts of Europe that Greco-Roman civilization had barely penetrated.

The Early Middle Ages (500-1050) marked an age of transition. The humanist culture that characterized the Greco-Roman past had disinte­ grated, and a new civilization was emerging in Latin Christendom, which covered western and central Europe. Medieval civilization con­ sisted of a blending of the remnants of Greco-Roman culture with Germanic customs and Christian principles. The central element was Christianity; the Christian view of a transcendent God and the quest for salvation pervaded the medieval outlook, and the church was the dom­ inant institution.

During the Early Middle Ages, Latin Christendom was a pioneer soci­ ety struggling to overcome invasions, a breakdown of central authority, a decline in trade and town life, and a deterioration of highly refined culture. The Latin Christian church, centered in Rome and headed by the pope, progressively gave form and unity to the new civilization. Christian clergy preserved some of the learning of the ancient world, which they incorporated into the Christian outlook. Dedicated mission­ aries converted various Germanic, Celtic, and Slavic peoples to Latin Christianity. From Italy to the North Sea and from Ireland to Poland, an emerging Christian tradition was providing unity to people with differ­ ing cultural traditions.

The center of emerging medieval civilization was the kingdom of the Franks, located in Gaul (France) and western Germany. Migrating west­ ward from their homeland in the valley of the Rhine River, the Ger­ manic Franks conquered Roman Gaul in the fifth and sixth centuries. Charlemagne (768-81 4), the greatest of the Frankish rulers, added large areas of Germany and Italy to his kingdom. On Christmas Day in the year 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans, a sign that the memory of Imperial Rome still persisted. Without Roman law, a professional civil service, and great cities serving as centers of trade, however, Charlemagne's empire was only a pale shadow of the Roman Empire. Rather, the crowning of a German king as emperor of the Romans by the pope signified something new: the intermingling of Germanic, Christian, and Roman elements that came to characterize medieval Latin Christendom.

Charlemagne's empire rested more on the strength of the emperor's personality than it did on viable institutions. Charlemagne's heirs were unable to hold the empire together; power passed gradually into the hands of large landholders, who exercised governmental authority in their own regions. Also contributing to this decline in centralized au­ thority were devastating raids by Muslims from Spain, North Africa,

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Chapter 7 Th e Early Middle A ges 193

and Mediterranean islands; Northmen from Scandinavia; and Magyars from western Asia. Europe had entered an age of feudalism, in which public authority was dispersed among lords and held as if it were pri­ vate inheritable property.

Feudalism rested on an economic base known as manorialism. Al­ though family farms owned by free peasants still existed, the essential agri­ cultural arrangement in medieval society was the village community (manor), headed by a lord or his steward and farmed by serfs, who were bound to the land. A .lord controlled at least one manorial village; great lords might possess scores. Much land was held by various clerical institu­ tions; the church's manors were similar to those run by nonclerics.

Feudalism was an improvised response to the challenge posed by in­ effectual central authority, and it provided some order and law during a period of breakdown. Medieval feudal practices were not uniform but differed from region to region. In later centuries, when kings reasserted their authority and fashioned strong central governments, the power of lords declined.

Latin Christendom (western and central Europe) was only one of three new civilizations based on religion that emerged after the decline of the Roman Empire; Byzantium and Islam were.the other two. During the Early Middle Ages both of these eastern civilizations were far more advanced than Latin Christendom. And yet it was Latin Christendom, not Byzantine or Islamic civilizations, that eventually produced the modern world.

1 The Byzantine Cultural Achievement ~

During the Early Middle Ages, when learning was in retreat in Latin Christendom, Byzantine civilization preserved the intellectual tradition of ancient Greece. Al­ though the Roman Empire in the West fell to the German tribes, the eastern provinces of the Empire survived. They did so because they were richer, more ur­ banized, and more pOlJulous and because the main thrust of the Germanic and Hunnish invaders had been directed at the western regions. In the eastern parts, Byzantine civilization took shape. Its religion was Christianity, its culture Greek, and its machinery of administration Roman. Contacts with Byzantine learning dur­ ing the High Middle Ages stimulated learning in the Latin West.

Theophylact Simocattes THE VALUE OF REASON AND HISTORY

In the following selection Theophylact Simocattes, a seventh-century Byzantine historian, shows respect for the tradition of reason that was inherited from the

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classical world and familiarity with Homer, the wellspring of Greek literature. Like Thucydides, he values history, considering it a far better avenue to knowl­ edge than the myths and fables created or embellished by poets.

Man is adorned not only by the endowments of nature but also by the fruits of his own efforts. For reason, which he possesses, is an admirable and di­ vine trait by which he renders to God his adora­ tion and homage. Through reason he enters into knowledge of himself and does not remain igno­ rant of the ordering of his creation . Accordingly, through reason II;len come together with each other and, turning away from external considera­ tions , they direct their thoughts toward the mys­ tery of their own nature.

Reason has given many good things to men and is an excellent helpmate of nature. The

. things which nature has withheld from man, reason provides in the most effective manner, embellishing those things which are seen, adding spice to those that are tasted , roughen­ ing or softening things to the touch, compos­ ing poetry and music for the ear, soothing the soul by lessening discord, and bringing sounds into concord. Is not reason also the most per­ suasive master of the crafts?-reason which has made a well-woven tunic from wool, which from wood has constructed carts for farmers, oars for sailors, and small wicker shields for soldiers as protection against the dangers of the battlefield .

Most important of all, reason provides the hearer with that pleasure which reflects the greatest amount of experience, the study of his­ tory, which is the instructor of the spirit. Noth­ ing can be more seductive than history for the minds of those who desire to learn. It is suffi­ cient to cite an example from Homer to demon­ strate this: Soon after he had been thrown on the beach by violent waves of the sea, the son of Laertes, Odysseus, almost naked and with his body emaciated from the mishap of the ship­ wreck, was graciously received at the court of Alcinous. There he was clothed in a bright robe and given a place at the table of the king . Al­ though only just arrived, he was granted per­ mission to speak and an opportuni ty to relate

his adventures. His recital pleased the Pho­ caeans so much that the banquet seemed to have changed into a theater. Indeed, they lent him an attention altogether remarkable, nor did they feel during his long narration any tedium, al­ though he described the many misfortunes he had suffered . For listening brings an over­ whelming desire (to hear more) and thus easily accepts a strange tale.

It is for this reason that in learning the poets are considered most estimable, for they realize that the spirits of men are fond of stories, always yearning to acquire knowledge and thirsty for strange narrations. Thus the poets create myths for men and clothe their phrases with adorn­ ments, fleshing out the fables with method, and embellishing their nonsense with meter as if with enchanted spells. This artifice has suc­ ceeded so well that poets are considered to be the­ ologians, intimately associated with the gods. It is believed that through the poets' mouths the gods reveal their own personal affairs and also whether a felicitous or a calamitous event will happen to men in their lifetime.

This being so, one may term history the common teacher of all men: it shows which course to follow and which to avoid as profitless. The most competent generals are those who have been instructed by history, for history reveals how to draw up troops and by what means to outmaneuver the enemy through ambush. His­ tory renders these generals more prudent be­ cause they know about the misfortunes of others, and it directs them through observation of the mistakes of others. Similarly, it has shown that men become happier through good con­ duct, pushing men to higher peaks of virtue through gradual advances. For the old man his­ tory is his support and staff, while for the young, it is the fairest and wisest instructor, ap­ plying (the fruit of) great experience to new sit­ uations and thus anticipating somewhat the lessons of time. I now dedicate my own zeal and

Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 195

efforts to history, although I know that I am un­ skill in composition. If any parts of my work dertaking a greater task than I am able to fulfill should prove pleasing in any way, let this be as­ effectively, since I lack _>legance of expression, cribed rather to the result of chance than to my profundity of thought, purity of syntax, and own skill.

Procopius THE BUILDING OF HAGHIA SOPHIA

In his work dealing with the construction of the church of Haghia Sophia (holy wisdom), the Byzantine historian, Procopius of Caesarea (c. 499-565), illumined a different aspect of the Byzantine cultural achievement, its artistic genius. Pro­ copius discussed the construction of this magnificent edifice, the baffling techni­ cal problems it posed, and their resolution. Started in A.D. 360 and completed in A.D. 537, the church was the most awesome architectural achievement of the reign of the emperor Justinian, and it became a landmark of imperial glory. Jus­ tinian spared nothing to build Saint Sophia, employing the talents of mathemati­ cians who had studied ancient treatises on vaulting and curved surfaces and bringing to bear the greatest technical and artistic skills of Byzantine civilization, to achieve a result of unparalleled beauty. The following is Procopius' description of the construction of Saint Sophia.

{T[he Emperor, disregarding all questions of ex­ So the church has become a spectacle of mar­ pense, eagerly pressed on to begin the work of vellous beauty, overwhelming to those who see construction, and began to gather all the arti­ it, but to those who know it by hearsay alto­ sans from the whole world. And Anthemius of gether incredible. For it soars to a height to Tralles, the most learned man in the skilled craft match the sky, and as if surging up from amongst which is known as the art of building, not only the other buildings it stands on high and looks of all his contemporaries, but also when com­ down upon the remainder of the city, adorning pared with those who had lived long before him, it, because it is a part of it, but glorying in its ministered to the Emperor's enthusiasm, duly own beauty, because, though a part of the city regulating the tasks of the various artisans, and and dominating it, it at the same time towers preparing in advance designs of the future con­ above it to such a height that the whole city is struction; and associated with him was another viewed from there as from a watch-tower. Both master-builder, Isidorus by name, a Milesian by its breadth and its length have been so carefully birth, a man who was intelligent and worthy to proportioned, that it may not improperly be said assist the Emperor Justinian. Indeed this also was to be exceedingly long and at the same time un­ an indication of the honour in which God held usually broad. And it exults in an indescribable the Emperor, that He had already provided the beauty. For it proudly reveals its mass and the men who would be most serviceable to him in the harmony of its proportions, having neither any tasks which were waiting to be carried out. And excess nor deficiency, since it is both more pre­ one might with good reason marvel at the dis­ tentious than the buildings to which we are ac­ cernment of the Emperor himself, in that out of customed, and considerably more noble than the whole world he was able to select the men those which are merely huge, and it abounds ex­ who were most suitable for the most important of ceedingly in sunlight and in the reflection of the his enterprises. sun's rays from the marble. Indeed one might

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say that its interior is not illuminated from without by the sun, but that the radiance comes into being within it , such an abundance of light bathes this shrine. And the face itselfof the church (which would be the part which faces the rising sun, that portion of the building in which they perform the mysteries in worship of God) was con­ structed in the following manner. . . .

Procopius describes in detail the construc­ tion and design of the church, which con­ sists of a basically rectangular unit with four great arches, topped by a windowed circular structure, upon which a massive dome was placed, "marvelous in its grace, but by rea­ son of the seeming insecurity of its com­ position, altogether terrifying." The result, according to Procopius, is a triumph of tech­ nique, of art, of soul. It is an ethereal struc­ ture that seems to float, divertingthe spectator from the building's innumerable unsettling details to an all-encompassing spiritual vi­ sion in which the mind is lifted upward to God. The exaltation it inspires, he says, is a tribute to the proximity of God and the genius of Justinian .

. . . And upon this circle rests the huge spheri­ cal dome which makes the structure exception­ ally beautiful. Yet it seems not to rest upon solid masonry, but to cover the space with its golden dome suspended from Heaven. All these details, fitted together with incredible skill in mid-air and floating off from each other and resting only on the parts next to them, produce a single and most extraordinary harmony in the work, and yet do not permit the spectator to linger much over the study of anyone of them, but each de­ tail attracts the eye and draws it on irresistibly to itself. So the vision constantly shifts sud­ denly, for the beholder is utterly unable to select which particular detail he should admire more than all the others. But even so, though they turn their attention to every side and look with con­ tracted brows upon every detail, observers are still unable to understand the skilful craftsman­ ship, but they always depart from there over­ whelmed by the bewildering sight. So much, then, for this.

It was by many skilful devices that the Em­ peror Justinian and the master-builder An­ rhemius and Isidorus secured the stability of the church, hanging, as it does, in mid-air. Some of these it is both hopeless for me to understand in their entirety, and impossible to explain in words . . . .

The whole ceiling is overlaid with pure gold, which adds glory to the beauty, yet the light re­ flected from the stones prevails, shining out in rivalry with the gold . And there are two stoa­ like colonnades;' one on each side, not separated in any way from the structure of the church it­ self, but actually making the effect of its width greater, and reaching along its whole length, to the very end, while in height they are less than the interior of the building. And they too have vaulted ceilings and decorations of gold. One of these two colonnaded stoas has been assigned to men worshippers, while the other is reserved for women engaged in the same exercise. But they have nothing to distinguish them, nor do they differ from one another in any way, but their very equality serves to beautify the church, and their similarity to adorn it . But who could fit­ tingly describe the galleries of the women's side, or enumerate the many colonnades and the colonnaded aisles by means of which the church is surrounded? Or who could recount the beauty of the columns and the stones with which the church is adorned? One might imagine that he had come upon a meadow with its flowers in full bloom. For he would surely marvel at the purple of some, the green tint of others, and at those on which the crimson glows and those from which the white flashes, and again at those which Nature, like some painter, varies with the most contrasting colours. And whenever anyone enters this church to pray, he understands at once that it is not by any human power or skill, but by the influence of God, that this work has been so finely turned. And so his mind is lifted up toward God and exalted, feeling that He can­ not be far away, but must especially love to dwell in this place which He has chosen. And

lIn ancient Greek architecture, a stoa was a covered walk, usually having columns on one side and a wall on the other.

this does not happen only to one who sees the church for the first time, bur the same experience comes to him on each successive occasion , as though the sight were new each time. Of this spectacle no one has ever had a surfeit, but when present in the church men rejoice in what they see, and when they leave it they take proud de­ light in conversing about it. Furthermore, con­ cerning the treasures of this church-the vessels of gold and silver and the works in precious stones, which the Emperor Justinian has dedi­ cated here-it is impossible to give a precise ac­ count of them all. Bur I shall allow my readers to form a judgment by a single example. That part

REVIEW QUESTIONS

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of the shrine which is especially sacred, where only priests may enter, which they call the Inner Sanctuary, is embellished with forty thousand pounds' weight of silver.

So the church of Constantinople (which men are accustomed to call the Great Church), speak­ ing concisely and merely running over the details with the finger-tips, as it were, and mentioning with a fleeting word only the most notable fea­ tures, was constructed in such a manner by the Emperor Justinian. But it was not with money alone that the Emperor built it, but also with labour of the mind and with the other powers of the soul.

1. Why did Theophylact value reason? History? What is his debt to ancient Greece? 2. From Procopius' description, list some distinguishing features of Saint Sophia.

2 Islam

The vital new religion of Islam emerged in the seventh century among the Arabs of Arabia. Its founder was Muhammad (c. 570-632), a prosperous merchant in Mecca, a trading city near the Red Sea. When Muhammad was about forty, he be­ lieved that he was visited by the angel Gabriel, who ordered him to "recite in the name of the Lord!" Transformed by this vision, Muhammad was convinced that he had been chosen to serve as a prophet.

Although most desert Arabs worshiped tribal gods, in the towns and trading centers many Arabs were familiar with Judaism and Christianity, and some had accepted the idea of one God. Rejecting the many deities of the tribal religions, Muhammad offered the Arabs a new monotheistic faith, Islam, which means "surrender to Allah" (God).

Muhammad THE KORAN

Islamic standards of morality and rules governing daily life are set by the Koran, the book that Muslims believe contains the words of Allah as revealed to Muham­ mad. Muslims see their religion as the completion and perfection ofJudaism and Christianity. They regard the ancient Hebrew prophets as sent from God and value their messages about compassion and the oneness of humanity. Muslims also regard Jesus as a great prophet but do not consider him divine. They see

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Muhammad as the last and greatest of the prophets and believe that he was en­ tirely human, not divine. Muslims worship only Allah, the creator and ruler of heaven and earth, a single, all-powerful God who is merciful, compassionate, and just. Following are excerpts from the Koran:

GOD

God: there is no god but Him, the Living, the Eternal One. Neither slumber nor sleep over­ takes Him. His is what the heavens and the earth contain. Who can intercede with Him ex­ cept by His permission? He knows what is be­ fore and behind men. They can grasp only that part of His knowledge which He wills. His throne is as vast as the heavens and the earth, and the preservation of both does not weary Him. He is the Exalted, the Immense One. (2:255-257)

In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the

Merciful

It is the Merciful who has taught the Koran. He created man and taught him articulate

speech. The sun and the moon pursue their or­ dered course. The plants and the trees bow down in adoration.

He raised the heaven on high and set the bal­ ance of all things, that you might not transgress that balance. Give just weight and full measure.

He laid the earth for His creatures, with all its fruits and blossom-bearing palm, chaff­ covered grain and scented herbs. Which of your Lord's blessings would you deny?

He created man from potter's clay, and the jinn [spirits} from smokeless fire. Which of your Lord's blessings would you deny? (55:1-18)

All that is in the heavens and the earth gives glory to God. He is the Mighty, the Wise One.

It is He that has sovereignty over the heavens and the earth. He ordains life and death, and has power over all things.

He is the First and the Last, the Visible and the Unseen. He has knowledge of all things.

It was He who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and then mounted the throne. He knows all that goes into the earth and all that emerges from it, all that comes down from heaven and all that ascends to it. He is with you wherever you are. God is cognizant of all your actions.

He has sovereignty over the heavens and the earth. To God shall all things return. He causes the night to pass into the day, and causes the day to pass into the night . He has knowledge of the inmost thoughts of men. (57:1-7)

RIGHTEOUSNESS AND MERCY

Righteousness does not consist in whether you face towards the East or the West. The righteous man is he who believes in God and the Last Day, in the angels and the Book and the prophets; who, though he loves it dearly, gives away his wealth to kinsfolk, to orphans, to the destitute, to the traveller in need and to beggars, and for the redemption of captives ; who attends to his prayers and renders the alms levy; who is true to his promises and steadfast in trial and adversity and in times of war. Such are the true believers; such are the God-fearing. (2:176-178)

Serve God and associate none with Him. Show kindness to parents and kindred, to or­ phans and to the destitute, to near and distant neighbours, to those that keep company with you, to the traveller in need, and to the slaves you own. God does not love arrogant and boast­ ful men, who are themselves niggardly and en­ join others to be niggardly; who conceal the riches which God of His bounty has bestowed upon them (We have prepared a shameful pun­ ishment for the unbelievers); and who spend their wealth for the sake of ostentation, believ­ ing neither in God nor in the Last Day. He that

chooses Satan for his friend, an evil friend has he. (4:36- 39)

CHRISTIANITY

And remember the angels' words to Mary. They said:* "God has chosen you. He has made you pure and exalted you above womankind. Mary, be obedient to your Lord; bow down and wor­ ship with the worshippers."

This is an account of a divine secret . We re­ veal it to you. t You were not present when they cast lots to see which of them should have charge of Mary; nor were you present when they argued about her.

The angels said to Mary: "God bids you re­ joice in a word from Him. His name is the Mes­ siah, Jesus the son of Mary. He shall be noble in this world and in the hereafter, and shall be one of those who are favoured. He shall preach to men in his cradle and in the prime of manhood, and shall lead a righteous life."

"Lord ," she said, "how can I bear a child when no man has touched me? "

He replied: "Even thus. God creates whom He will. When He decrees a thing He need only say: 'Be,' and it is. He will instruct him in the Scriptures and in wisdom, in the Torah and in the Gospel, and send him forth as an apostle to the Israelites. He will say: 'I bring you a sign from your Lord . From clay I will make for you the likeness of a bird. I shall breathe into it and, by God's leave, it shall become a living bird . By God's leave I shall heal the blind man and the leper, and raise the dead to life. I shall tell you what to eat and what to store up in your houses . Surely that will be a sign for you, if you are true believers . I come to confirm the Torah which preceded me and to make lawful to you some of the things you are forbidden. I bring you a sign from your Lord : therefore fear God and obey me. God is my Lord and your Lord: therefore serve Him. That is a straight path.''' (3 :42-51)

' Cf. Luke i, 26-38. tMu0ammad.

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People of the Book.t do not transgress the bounds of your religion. Speak nothing but the truth about God. The Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, was no more than God 's apostle and His Word which He cast to Mary: a spirit from Him. So believe in God and His apostles and do not say: "T hree" [a reference to the Trinity] For­ bear, and it shall be better for you. God is but one God . God forbid that He should have a son! His is all that the heavens and the earth contain. God is the all-sufficient protector. The Messiah does not disdain to be a servant of God, nor do the angels who are nearest to Him. Those who through arrogance disdain His service shall all be brought before Him. (4:171-172)

HEAVEN AND HELL

THAT WHICH IS COMING

In the Name a/God, the Compassionate, the Merci/ul

When that which is coming comes-and no soul shall then deny its coming-some shall be abased and others exalted.

When the earth shakes and quivers, and the mountains crumble away and scatter abroad into fine dust, you shall be divided into three multitudes: those on the right (blessed shall be those on the right); those on the left (damned shall be those on the left); and those to the fore (foremost shall be those). Such are they that shall be brought near to their Lord in the gar­ dens of delight: a whole multitude from the men of old, but only a few from the latter gen­ erations.

They shall recline on jewelled couches face to face, and there shall wait on them immortal youths with bowls and ewers and a cup of purest wine (that will neither pain their heads nor take away their reason); with fruits of their own choice and flesh of fowls that they relish. And theirs shall be the dark-eyed houris [beau­

tChristians.

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tiful virgins], chaste as hidden pearls: a guer­ don [reward] for their deeds.

There they shall hear no idle talk, no sinful speech, but only the greeting, "Peace! Peace!" Those on the right hand - happy shall be those on the right hand! They shall recline on couches raised on high in the shade of thornless [cedars] and clusters of talh.s amidst gushing waters and abundant fruits, unforbidden, never­ ending.

We created the houris and made them vir­ gins, loving companions for those on the right hand: a multirude from the men of old, and a multitude from the later generations. .

As for those on the left hand (wretched shall be those on the left :hand!) they shall dwell amidst scorching winds and seething water: in the shade of pitch-black smoke, neither cool nor refreshing . For they have lived in comfort and persisted in the heinous sin,11 saying: "W hen we are once dead and turned to dust and bones, shall we be raised to life? And Out forefathers, too? "

§Probably the banana fruit . llldolarry.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Say: "Those of old, and those of the present age, shall be brought together on an appointed day. As for you sinners who deny the truth, you shall eat the fruit of the Zaqqurn tree and fill your bellies with it. You shall drink scalding water: yet you shall drink it as the thirsty camel drinks."

Such shall be their fare on the Day of Reckon­ ing. (56:1-56)

WOMEN

Men have authority over women because God has made the one superior to the other, and because they spend their wealth to maintain them. Good women are obedient . .They guard their unseen parts because God has guarded them. As for those from whom you fear disobe­ dience, admonish them and send them to beds apart and beat them. Then if they obey you, take no further action against them. Surely God is high, supreme.

If you fear a breach between a man and his wife, appoint an arbiter from his people and an­ other from hers. If they wish to be reconciled God will bring them together again. Surely God is all-knowing and wise . (4:34-35)

1. Compare and contrast the views of God and morality described in the Koran with those found in the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament.

2. What advice does the Koran give to Christians?

3 Muslim Relations with Christians and Jews ~

The Koran regards Jesus as a righteous prophet who performed miracles but re­ jects his divinity and denounces as blasphemers those who believe in it. Muslims accept the Hebrew Scriptures as God's revelation but are often critical of Jews, probably because of their opposition to Muhammad in Medina. In Islamic lands both Christians and Jews were called the people of the Book and were granted the status of dhimmis-minorities who lived under the protection of Islamic au­ thority. They were not required to convert and were free to practice their faith in private and to govern their own communities. For these privileges, they had to

Chapter 7 The Early Middle A ges 201

accept a subordinate status, which included payment of a poll tax and humiliat­ ing restrictions on their activities (described in the following documents). De­ spite these prohibitions, Christians and Jews generally enjoyed toleration and some rose to positions of prominence. Jews in particular lived in greater security than they did in Christian lands where, in the High and Late Middle Ages, they were subject to frequent persecution, including expulsion and massacre. Unlike in the Latin West, medieval Muslims did not teach that Jews were endowed with Satanic qualities.

LEGAL TEXTS AND DECREES: !

RESTRICTIONS ON DHIMMIS , I' : ~ i

The first document describing restrictions on Jews and Christians is from a legal text drawn up in the eighth and ninth centuries. The second is a decree issued by a caliph in 1354.

"You will be subject to the authority of Islam and to no contrary authority. You will not refuse to carry out any obligation which we think fit to impose upon you by virtue of this authority.

If anyone of you speaks improperly of Muhammad, may God bless and save him, the Book of God, or of His religion, he forfeits the protection [dhimma] of God, of the Commander of the Faithful, and of all the Muslims; he has contravened the conditions upon which he was given his safe-conduct; his property and his life are at the disposal of the Commander of the Faithful.

If one of them commits fornication with a Muslim woman or goes through a form of mar­ riage with her or robs a Muslim on the highway or subverts a Muslim from his religion or gives aid to those who made war against the Muslims by fighting with them or by showing them the weak points of the Muslims, or by harboring their spies, he has contravened his pact ['ahd] , and his life and his property are at the disposal of the Muslims.

If he commits some lesser offense against the property or the honor of a Muslim or against an infidel under Muslim protection, with a pact or safe-conduct, he shall be punished .

We shall supervise all your dealings with Muslims. If there is anything in which you are

engaged which is not lawful for a Muslim, we shall reject it and punish you for it. If you sell a Muslim something we hold forbidden, such as wine, pig, blood, or carrion, and the like, we shall annul the sale, confiscate the price if it has been paid, and not rerum the thing to you if it still exists , but pour it our if it is wine or blood and burn it if it is carrion; if the purchaser has already consumed it, we shall not oblige him to pay for it, but we shall punish you for it.

You shall not give a Muslim anything to eat or drink which is forbidden, nor marry him in the presence of witnesses chosen from among you nor by wedding rites we hold to be invalid.. ..

If any of you steals and the victim takes him before a judge, his hand shall be cut off if his crime is punishable by this penalty, and he shall make restiturion. . . .

You may not display crosses in Muslim cities, nor proclaim polytheism, nor build churches or meeting places for your prayers, nor strike clap­ pers , nor proclaim your polytheistic beliefs on the subject ofJesus, son of [Mary], or any other to a Muslim.

You shall wear the girdle [zunnar] over all your garments, your cloaks and the rest, so that the girdles are not hidden. You shall differentiate yourselves by your saddles and your mounts, and you shall distinguish your and their headgear

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[qalansuwa} by a mark which you shall place on your headgear. You shall not occupy the middle of the road or the seats in the market, obstruct­ ing Muslims.

Every free adult male of sound mind among you shall have to pay a poll tax (jizya} of one di­ nar, in good coin, at the beginning of each year. He shall not be able to leave his city until he pays his poll tax or appoints someone to pay it on his behalf, with no further liability until the beginning of the year. The poor among you is li­ able for the poll tax, which should be paid for him. Poverty does not free you from any obliga­ tion, nor does it abrogate your pact [dhimmal ... You are subject to no taxes on your money other than the poll tax as long as you stay in your country or travel around in the lands of the Muslims otherwise than as a merchant. You may in no circumstances enter Mecca. If you travel for trade, you shall pay to the Muslims a tenth part of all your merchandise. You may go wher­ ever you wish in the lands of the Muslims, ex­ cept [holy} Mecca, and reside wherever you wish in the lands of the Muslims, except the Hijaz, where you may only stay for three days in any city, after which you must leave... .

We owe you protection, for yourselves and for property which it is lawful for you to hold ac­ cording to our laws, against anybody, Muslim or other, who seeks to wrong you, as we would pro­ tect our own persons and property, and we ad­ minister justice to you in matters under our jurisdiction as we do with our own property. But no one among you can ask us to protect any forbidden thing which you own, such as blood, carrion, wine, or pigs, as we would protect law­ ful property. We shall not prevent you from having them, but we shall not allow you to dis­ play them in the cities of the Muslims. If a Mus­ lim or any other buys such merchandise, we shall not compel him to pay the price, because these are forbidden things and therefore have no price which could be legally enforced. But we shall restrain him from troubling you in this, and if he persists he shall be punished, though not by enforcing payment for what he took from you.

You must observe all the conditions which we have imposed.

A noble decree , to the effect that all the com­ munities of Jews, Christians, and Samaritans in the Egyptian lands and the God-guarded realms of Islam and their dependencies must conform to the covenant accorded by the Commander of the Faithful 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, may God be pleased with him, to the members of these com­ munities in bygone times, as follows : That they shall not build any new convent or church or hermitage in the lands of Islam, nor rebuild any such building which is destroyed; that they shall not harbor spies nor any who are suspect to the Muslims, nor shall they deceitfully plot against the Muslims; that they shall not teach their children the Qur'an; that they shall not make public display of polytheism; that they shall not obstruct any of their relatives who wish to accept Islam; that they shall not dress like the Muslims, but shall wear blue and yellow distinguishing dress ; that their women shall be prevented from dressing like Muslim women; that they shall not ride with stirrups nor gird a sword, nor ride on a horse or mule but only on donkeys, side­ seat on litters; that they shall not sell intoxicat­ ing drinks; that they shall keep to their special dress wherever they are; that they shall wear gir­ dles not made of silk around their waists; that the Christian woman who appears in public shall wear a cotton veil, dyed blue, and the Jewess a yellow veil; that none of them shall enter the bath except wearing a sign around his neck which distinguishes him from the Muslims, such as a ring made of iron or lead or some other material; that they shall not build themselves houses higher than the houses of the Muslims, nor equal to them, but only lower; that they shall knock lightly with their clappers and not raise their voices in their churches; that they shall not work in the service of our exalted state, may God strengthen its foundations, nor in the service of any of the amirs, may Almighty God strengthen them, nor shall any of them hold a position which would give him authority over any of the Mus­ lims; that jurisdiction over the estates of the dead

Chapter 7 The Early Middle A ges 203

among them shall be according to the noble enter public bathhouses together with the Mus­ Muhammadan Holy Law and that the rules of lim women, bur that separate bathhouses shall administrative confiscation will be applied to be made for them, into which they shall enter. them equally as to the Muslim dead; that the All this is in accordance with the rulings of the women of the protected communities shall not doctors of the Holy Law, as has been explained.

REVIEW QUESTION

1. What was the purpose of the restrictions imposed on Christians and Jews?

4 Islam and Greek Learning --Vi".­

In the eighth and ninth centuries, Muslim civilization, which creatively integrated Arabic, Byzantine, Persian, and Indian cultural traditions, entered its golden age. Muslim science, philosophy, and mathematics, based largely on the achievements of the ancient Greeks, made brilliant contributions to the sum of knowledge at a time when Latin Christendom had lost much of Greco-Roman thought and cul­ ture. The Muslims had acquired Greek learning from the older Persian and Byzan­ tine civilizations, which had kept alive the Greek inheritance. By translating Greek works into Arabic and commenting on them, Muslim scholars performed the great historical task of preserving the philosophical and scientific heritage of ancient Greece. Along with this heritage, the original contributions of Muslim scholars and scientists were also passed on to Christian Europe.

Avicenna LOVE OF LEARNING

The most eminent Muslim thinker, Ibn-Sina, known to the West as Avicenna (980-1037), was a poet, doctor, scientist, and philosopher who wrote on every field of knowledge. His philosophical works, which relied heavily on Aristotle, had an important influence on medieval Christian thinkers. In his auto­ biography, excerpted below, Avicenna describes his love for learning and his debt to ancient Greece.

[In] Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan] I was ther invited him to stay in our house, hoping put under teachers of the Koran and of letters. that I would learn from him also. Before his By the time I was ten I had mastered the Koran advent I had already occupied myself with Mus­ and a great deal of literature, so that I was mar­ lim jurisprudence, attending Isrna'Il the As­ velled at for my aptitude.. .. Then there came cetic; so I was an excellent enquirer, having to Bukhara a man called Abu 'Abd Allah al­ become familiar with the methods of postulation Nar ili who claimed to be a philosopher; my fa- and the techniques of rebuttal according to the

204 Part Two The Middle Ages

usages of the canon lawyers . I now commenced reading the Isagoge(of Porphyry)! with al-Nat ili : when he mentioned to me the definition ofgenus as a term applied to a number of things of differ­ ent species in answer to the question "What is it ?" I set about verifying this definition in a man­ ner such as he had never heard . He marvelled at me exceedingly, and warned my father that I should not engage in any other occupation but learning; whatever problem he stated to me, I showed a better mental conception of it than he. So I continued until I had read all the straight­ forward parts of Logic with him; as for th e sub­ tler points, he had no acquaintance with them.

From then onward I took to reading texts by myself; I studied the commentaries, until I had completely mastered the science ofLogic. Similarly with Eucl id- I read the first five or six figures with him, and thereafter undertook on my own account to solve the entire remainder of the book. Next I moved on to the Almagest (of Ptolemy)>; when I had finished the prolegomena (introductory essay} and reached the geometrical figures, al-Natill told me to go on reading and to solve the problems by my­ self; I should merely revise what I read with him, so that he might indicate to me what was right and what was wrong. The truth is that he did not really teach this book; I began to solve the work , and many were the complicated figures of which he had no knowledge until I presented them to him, and made him understand them. Then al-Natill took leave of me, setting out for Gurganj.

I now occupied myself with mastering the various texts and commentaries on natural sci­ ence and metaphysics, until all the gates of knowledge were open to me. N ext I desired to study medicine, and proceeded to read all the

'Porphyry (A.D. 233-c. 305) wrote a history of philosophy and edited the lectures of Plotinus, the N eoplatonist . Th e lsagoge was Porph yry's int roduction to the categories of Aristotle. 2Euclid , an Alexandrian mathematician who lived around 300 B.C. He creat ively synthesized earlier developments in geometry . 3Ptolemy, a math ematician, geographer, and astronomer who worked at Alexand ria in the second century A.D . Hi s A lmagest , a Greek-Arabic term meaning "the g reatest ," summed up anti quity's knowledge of astro nomy and be­ came the aut hor itat ive text during the Middle Ages.

books th at have been written on this subject . Medicine is not a difficult science , and naturally I excelled in it in a very short time , so that qual­ ified physicians began to read medicine with me. I also undertook to treat the sick, and meth­ ods of treatment derived from practical experi­ ence revealed themselves to me such as baffle description. At the sam e time I continued be­ tween whiles to study and dispute on law, being now sixteen years of age .

The next eighteen months I devoted ent irely to reading; I studied Logic once again, and all the parts of ph ilosophy. During all this time I did not sleep one night through, nor devoted my attention to any other matter by day. I prepared a set of files; with each proof I examined , I set down the syllogistic premisses and put them in or­ der in the files, then I examined what deductions might be drawn from them. I observed me­ thodically the conditions of the premisses, and pro­ ceeded until the truth of each particular problem was confirmed for me . Whenever I found myself perplexed by a problem, or could not find th e mid­ dle term in any syllogism, I would repair to the mosque and pray, adoring the All-Creator, until my puzzle was resolved and my difficulty made easy. At night I would return home, set the lamp before me, and busy myself with reading and writing; whenever sleep overcame me or I was conscious of some weakness, I turned aside to drink a glass of wine until my strength returned to me; then I went back to my reading. If ever the least slumber overtook me , I would dream of the precise problem which I was considering as I fell asleep; in that way many problems revealed themselves to me while sleeping. So I continued until I had mad e myself master of all the sciences; I now comprehended them to the limits of hu­ man possibility. All that I learned during that time is exactly as I know it now; I have added nothing more to my knowledge to this day.

I was now a master of Logic, natural sciences and mathematics. I therefore returned to meta­ physics; I read the Metaphysica (of Aristotle), but did not understand its contents and was baffled by the author's intention; I read it over forty times, until I had the text by heart. Even then I did not understand it or what the aut hor meant , and

Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 205

I despaired within myself, saying, "This is a book which there is no way of understanding." But one day at noon I chanced to be in the booksellers' quarter, and a broker was there with a volume in his hand which he was calling for sale. He offered it to me, but I returned it to him impatiently, be­ lieving that there was no use in this particular sci­ ence . However he said to me, "Buy this book from me : it is cheap, and I will sell it to you for four dirhams. The owner is in need of the money." So I bought it, and found that it was a book by Abu Nasr al-Farab! On the Objects of the Metaphys­ ica. I returned home and hastened to read it; and at once the objects of that book became clear to me, for I had it all by heart. I rejoiced at this, and upon the next day distributed much in alms to the poor in gratitude to Almighty God.

Now the Sultan of Bukhara at that time was NUl) ibn Mansur, and it happened that he fell sick of a malady which baffled all the physicians. My name was famous among them because of the breadth of my reading; they therefore men­ tioned me in his presence, and begged him to summon me. I attended the sick-room, and

REVIEW QUESTIONS

collaborated with them in treating the royal pa­ tient. So I came to be enrolled in his service. One day I asked his leave to enter their library, to exam­ ine the contents and read the books on medicine; he granted my request, and I entered a mansion with many chambers, each chamber having chests of books piled one upon another. In one apartment were books on language and poetry, in another law, and so on; each apartment was set aside for books on a single science. I glanced through the cata­ logue of the works ofthe ancient Greeks, and asked for those which I required; and I saw books whose very names are as yet unknown to many-works which I had never seen before and have not seen since. I read these books, taking notes of their con­ tents; I came to realize the place each man occu­ pied in his particular science.

So by the time I reached my eighteenth year I had exhausted all these sciences. My memory for learning was at that period of .rp.y life better than it is now, but to-day I am more mature; apart from this my knowledge is exactly the same, nothing further having been added to my store since then.

1. Provide examples of Avicenna's familiarity with Greek learning. 2. Show how Avicenna combined Greek learning with Islamic teachings.

5 Converting the Germanic Peoples to Christianity ~

From its beginnings, Christianity sought to carry to all peoples its offer of sal­ vation through faith in Jesus. After Christianity had become the religion of the Roman state, pagan cults were suppressed. When the western Roman provinces fell under the power of invading Germanic tribes, Christian Romans faced the task of converting their new rulers to their religion.

The ability of the Christian religion to penetrate and absorb alien cultures while preserving its own core beliefs was continually to be tested in the Early Middle Ages. Roman Britain had been invaded in the fifth century by various tribes from northwestern Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Among these tribes were the Angles (from which the word English is derived), the Saxons, and the Jutes. The Romano-Britons, who were Christians, were forced to retreat westward to oc­ cupy what became the Celtic-speaking Christian principalities of Cornwall, Wales, and Cumberland. Pagan Germans ruled the rest of England.

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206 Part Two The Middle Ages

Bede HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND PEOPLE

The English monk called the Venerable Bede (673-735), in his History ofthe Eng­ lish Church and People, cites a letter from Pope Gregory I (the Great) written in 601. In the letter, the pope forwarded instructions for Augustine of Canterbury, whom he had appointed leader of a mission to convert the English to Christian­ ity. He wrote his emissary to tell Augustine to win the favor of the pagan English by accommodating the requirements of Christian beliefs to the existing non­ Christian cultural practices, as the excerpt shows.

When these [missionaries] had left, the holy fa­ ther Gregory sent after them letters worthy ofour notice, which show most clearly his unwearying interest in the salvation of our nation. The letter runs as follows:

"To our well loved son Abbot! Mellitus: Greg­ ory, servant of the servants of God.

"Since the departure of yourself and your companions, we have been somewhat anxious, because we have received no news of the success of your journey. Therefore, when by God's help you reach our most reverend brother, Bishop Augustine.s we wish you to inform him that we have been giving careful thought to the affairs of the English, and have come to the conclusion that the temples of the idols in that country should on no account be destroyed. He is to de­ stroy the idols, but the temples themselves are to be aspersed [sprinkled] with holy water, al­ tars set up, and relics enclosed in them. For if these temples are well built, they are to be puri­ fied from devil-worship.> and dedicated to the service of the true God. In this way, we hope

"The elected head of a monastic community, the abbot was supposed to rule justly and paternally following the consti­ tution (rule) of the community. 2Augustine (not to be confused with Augustine of Hippo) was an Italian monk who was sent in 597 to convert the English to Christianity. He established his see (bishopric) at Canterbury and founded others at Rochester and London, successfully directing missionary activity in the southern part of what is now England. 3AsChristianity was monotheistic, it denied the valid ity of any other gods . Therefore, Christians customarily desig­ nated the pagan deities as "devils, " or evil spirits .

that the people, seeing that its temples are not destroyed, may abandon idolatry and resort to these places as before, and may come to know and adore the true God. And since they have a custom of sacrificing many oxen to devils, let some other solemnity be substituted in its place, such as a day of Dedication? or the Festivals of the holy martyrs [saints' days] whose relics are enshrined there. On such occasions they might well construct shelters of boughs for themselves around the churches that were once temples, and celebrate the solemnity with devout feast­ ing. They are no longer to sacrifice beasts to the Devil, but they may kill them for food to the praise of God, and give thanks to the Giver ofall gifts for His bounty. If the people are allowed some worldly pleasures in this way, they will more readily come to desire the joys of the spirit. For it is certainly impossible to eradicate all errors from obstinate minds at one stroke, and whoever wishes to climb to a mountain top climbs gradually step by step, and not in one leap . It was in this way that God revealed Him­ self to the Israelite people in Egypt, permitting the sacrifices formerly offered to the Devil to be offered thenceforward to Himself instead. So He bade them sacrifice beasts to Him, so that, once they became enlightened, they might abandon a wrong conception of sacrifice, and adopt the right. For, while they were to continue to offer

4The anniversary of the dedication or consecration of a church was celebrated as a holiday .

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Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 207

beasts as before, they were to offer them to God he may consider how he may best implement instead of to idols, thus transforming the idea of it on the spot. God keep you safe, my very sacrifice. Of your kindness, you are to inform dear son." ... our brother Augustine of this policy, so that

Einhard FORCIBLE CONVERSION UNDER CHARLEMAGNE

Although most conversions were based on peaceful persuasion or a voluntary act of consent, occasionally Christianity was imposed by force. Thus, after his long wars against the pagan Saxons, Charlemagne required the Saxons to adopt Chris­ tianity and be assimilated into the Frankish kingdom. In his biography of Charle­ magne, the Frankish historian Einhard (770-840) described this event.

No war ever undertaken by the Frank nation was carried on with such persistence and bitterness, or cost so much labor, because the Saxons;' like al­ most all the tribes of Germany, were a fierce peo­ ple, given to the worship of devils, and hostile to our religion, and did not consider it dishonorable to transgress and violate all law, human and di­ vine. Then there were peculiar circumstances that tended to cause a breach of peace every day. Ex­ cept in a few places, where large forests or moun­ tain ridges intervened and made the bounds certain, the line between ourselves and the Saxons passed almost in its whole extent through an open country, so that there was no end to the murders, thefts, and arsons on both sides. In this way the Franks became so embittered that they at last resolved to make reprisals no longer, but to come to open war with the Saxons [in 772]. Ac­ cordingly war was begun against them, and was waged for thirty-three successive years with great fury; more, however, to the disadvantage of the Saxons than of the Franks. It could doubtless have been brought to an end sooner, had it not been for the faithlessness of the Saxons. It is hard to say how often they were conquered, and humbly sub­ mitting to the King, promised to do what was

enjoined upon them, gave without hesitation the required hostages, and received the officers sent them from the King. They were sometimes so much weakened and reduced that they promised to renounce the worship of devils, and to adopt Christianity, but they were no less ready to vio­ late these terms than prompt to accept them, so that it is impossible to tell which came easier to them to do; scarcely a year passed from the be­ ginning of the war without such changes on their part. But the King did not suffer his high pur­ pose and steadfastness-firm alike in good and evil fortune-to be wearied by any fickleness on their part, or to be turned from the task that he had undertaken; on the contrary, he never allowed their faithless behavior to go unpunished, but ei­ ther took the field against them in person, or sent his counts- with ~n army to wreak vengeance and exact righteous satisfaction. At last, after con­ quering and subduing all who had offered resis­ tance, he took ten thousand of those that lived on the banks of the Elbe.> and settled them, with their wives and children, in many different bod­ ies here and there in Gaul and Germany. The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended

2Counts were royal officials exercising the king's authority in districts called counties.

"The Saxons were members of a Germanic tribe living be­ 3The Elbe River, in central Germany, flows northwestward tween the Rhine and Elbe rivers. into the North Sea.

208 Part Two The Middle Ages

by their acceding to the terms offered by the ceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith King; which were renunciation of their national and religion, and union with the Franks to form religious customs and the worship of devils, ac­ one people.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Give examples of the methods Pope Gregory I suggested for introducing Christianity in pagan England .

2. Compare the methods Charlemagne used to convert the Saxons with the instruction given by Pope Gregory I to Augustine of Canterbury.

6 The Transmission of Learning --Vv_

Learning, which had been in retreat in the Late Roman Empire, continued its de­ cline in the unsettled conditions following Rome's demise. The old Roman schools closed, and many scientific and literary works of the ancient world were either lost or neglected. Knowledge of the Greek language in western Europe vir­ tually disappeared, and except for clerics, few people could read or write Latin. The few learned people generally did not engage in original thought but pre­ served and transmitted surviving elements of the Greco-Roman past.

One such scholar was Cassiodorus (c. 490-575), who served three Ostrogothic kings in Italy. Cassiodorus wrote.theological treatises and the twelve-volume His­ tory of the Goths, but his principal achievement was collecting Greek and Latin manuscripts. Like other Christian scholars before and after him, Cassiodorus maintained that the study of secular literature was an aid to understanding sacred writings. He retired to a monastery where he fostered the monastic practice of copying Christian and pagan manuscripts. Without this effort of monks, many important secular and Christian writings might have perished.

Cassiodorus THE MONK AS SCRIBE

In the following reading from his Introduction to Divine and Human Readings, Cassiodorus gave his views on the importance of the monastic scribe's vocation. Cassiodorus believed that through his pen the scribe preaches the word of God and is inspired by his text to know God more fully.

ON SCRIBES AND THE REMEM­ it appeals, perhaps not without reason , for by BERING OF CORRECT SPEiLING reading the Divine Scriptures he wholesomely

instructs his own mind and by copying the pre­ 1. I admit that among those of your tasks cepts of the Lord he spreads them far and wide.

which require physical effort that of the scribe,' Happy his design, praiseworthy his zeal, to if he writes correctly, appeals most to me ; and preach to men with the hand alone, to unleash

tongues with the fingers, to give salvationlScribes were persons trained to copy by hand the texts of books, or to take dictation . silently to mortals, and to fight against the illicit

temptations of the devil with pen and ink. Every word of the Lord written by the scribe is a wound inflicted on Satan. And so, though seated in one spot, with the dissemination of his work he trav­ els through different provinces. The product of his roil is read in holy places; people hear the means by which they may turn themselves away from base desire and serve the Lord with heart undefiled. Though absent, he labors at his task. I cannot deny that he may receive a renovation of life from these many blessings, if only he accom­ plishes things of this sort, not with a vain show of ambition, but with upright zeal. Man multiplies the heavenly words, and in a certain metaphorical sense, if one may so express himself, that which the virtue of the Holy Trinity utters is written by a trinity of fingers. 0 sight glorious ro those who contemplate it carefully! With gliding pen the heavenly words are copied so that the devil's craft, by means of which he caused the head of the Lord ro be struck during His passion, may be destroyed. They deserve praise too for seeming in some way to imitate the action of the Lord, who, though it was expressed figuratively, wrote His law with the use of His all-powerful finger. Much indeed is there to be said about such a distin­ guished art, but it is enough to mention the fact that those men are called scribes (librarii) who serve zealously the just scales (libra) of the Lord .

2. But lest in performing this great service copyists introduce faulty words with letters changed or lest an untutored corrector fail to know how to correct mistakes, let them read the works of ancient authors on orthography [spelling)... .

. . . I have collected as many of these works as possible with eager curiosity. .. . [If you) read [them) with unremitting zeal , they will com­ pletely free you from the fog of ignorance, so that what was previously unknown may become for the most part very well known.

Chapter 7 Th e Early Middle Ages 209

that a handsome external form may clothe the beauty of sacred letters; in some measure, per­ haps, we imitate the example in the parable of the Lord, * who amid the glory of the heavenly ban­ quet has clothed in wedding garmenrs those whom He judges worthy of being invited to the table. And for the binders, in fitting manner, un­ less I err, we have represented various styles of binding in a single codex.? that he who so desires may choose for himself the type of cover he prefers .

4 . We have also prepared cleverly con­ structed lamps which preserve their illuminat­ ing flames and feed their own fire and without human attendance abundantly maintain a very full clearness of most copious light; and the fat oil in them does not fail, although it is burned continually with a bright flame.

5. Nor have we by any means allowed you to be unacquainted with the hour meters which have been discovered to be very useful to the hu­ man race. I have provided a sundial for you for bright days and a water clock which points out the hour continually both day and night , since on some days the bright sun is frequently absent, and rain water passes in marvellous fashion into the ground, because the fiery force of the sun, regulated from above, fails. And so the art of man has brought into harmony elements which are naturally separated; the hour meters are so re­ liable that you consider an act of either as having been arranged by ' messengers. These instru­ ments, then, have been provided in order that the soldiers of Christ.> warned by most definite signs, may be summoned to the carrying out of their divine task as if by sounding trumpets.

*Matthew 22:1l. 2A codex consists of the rectan gular sheets on whi ch scribes have written, bound together on one side like a modern book . Invented in the late first century A.D . , the codex grad­ ually replaced scrolls as the predominant way to store writ ­

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ten texts . 'I 3. In addition to these things we have pro­ I.,

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3"Sold iers of Christ" is a metaphor to describe the monks in their vocation , vided workers skilled in bookbinding, in order

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What was the function of a scribe ? 2. What contributions did the monasteries make in the development of medieval culture?

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210 Part Two The Middle Ages

7 The Carolingian Renaissance -----vt/i~

The Early Middle Ages witnessed a marked decline in learning and the arts. Pa­ tronage of both the liberal and the visual arts by the old Roman aristocracy was not widely copied by the Germanic ruling class that replaced the Romans. Sup­ port for learning and the arts shifted from secular to ecclesiastical patrons. Monasteries became the new centers for intellectual and artistic activities, and Christian themes and values almost entirely displaced the worldly values of Greco-Roman culture.

Under the patronage of Charlemagne (742-814), the great Frankish emperor, a conscious revival of classical Greek and Roman learning and the visual arts oc­ curred. Charlemagne realized that his great empire could not be effectively gov­ erned without a cadre of literate clergy and administrators. To educate the leaders of the Frankish empire, Charlemagne sponsored a number of reforms de­ signed to improve the educational institutions and the quality of literacy and learning in his realm. At court, he completely reformed the school conducted for the children of his family and his courtiers and recruited the best scholars in western Europe to staff it. Among these scholars was the English deacon Alcuin of York (735-804), who became his chief advisor on educational and religious af­ fairs. They aimed at restoring classical learning to serve the needs of the new Christian culture.

Einhard CHARLEMAGNE'S APPRECIATION OF LEARNING

The revival of classical learning and the visual arts under Charlemagne is called the Carolingian Renaissance, a cultural awakening that helped shape medieval civilization. One of Charlemagne's most significant decisions was ordering the making of copies of old manuscripts dating back to Roman times. Much of today's knowledge of Roman learning and literature comes from surviving Car­ olingian copies of older Latin texts that no longer exist. In the first reading, Charlemagne's biographer Einhard describes western Europe's greatest royal pa­ tron of the liberal arts since the fall of the western Roman Empire.

Charles [Charlemagne] had the gift of ready and fluent speech, and could express what­ ever he had to say with the utmost clearness. He was not satisfied with command of his na­ tive language merely, but gave attention to the study of foreign ones, and in particular was such a master of Latin that he could speak

it as well as his native tongue; but he could understand Greek better than he could speak it. He was so eloquent , indeed, that he might have passed for a teacher of eloquence. He most zealously cultivated the liberal arts, held those who taught them in great esteem, and conferred great honors upon them. He took

lessons in grammar of the deacon Peter of Pisa.! at that time an aged man . Another dea­ con , Albin of Britain, surnamed Alcuin , a man of Saxon extraction, who was the greatest scholar of the day, was his teacher in other branches of learning. The King spent much time and labor with him studying rhetoric, di­ alectics, and especially astronomy; he learned to reckon, and used to investigate the motions of the heavenly bodies most curiously, with an in ­ telligent scrutiny. He also tried to write, and used to keep tablets and blanks in bed under his pillow, that at leisure hours he might accustom his hand to form the letters; however, as he did not begin his efforts in due season, but late in life, they met with ill success.

He cherished with the greatest fervor and de­ votion the principles of the Christian religion, which had been instilled into him from infancy. Hence it was that he built the beautiful basil­ ica-' at Aix-la-Chapelle.t which he adorned with gold and silver and lamps, and with rails and doors of solid brass. He had the columns and marbles for this structure brought from Rome

1Peter of Pisa, a famous grammarian (in Latin, the interna­ tional language of the Middle Ages), was brought from Ital y to teach at the school in Charlemagne's palace. He en­ couraged interest in pre-Christian classical writing, which influenced the court poets of that era. 2A basil ica is usually a rectangular-shaped church, whose main chamber is divided by columns into a cent ral nave and side aisles. There was usually a semicircular apse at the nar­ row end facing the east , which was the visual focal point and the location of the main altar. 3Aix-la-Chapelle, now Aachen , was Charlemagne's capital. It was located in what is now western Germany, near the Netherlands-Belgium frontier.

Chapter 7 T he Early M iddle A ges 211

and Ravenna.i for he could not find such as were suitable elsewhere. He was a constant worshipper at this church as long as his health permitted, going morning and evening, even after nightfall, besides attending mass; and he took care that all the services there conducted should be administered with the utmost possi­ ble propriety, very often warning the sextons not to let any improper or unclean thing be brought into the building or remain in it. He provided it with a great number of sacred vessels of gold and silver and with such a quantity of clerical robes that not even the doorkeepers who fill the humblest officein the church were obliged to wear their everyday clothes when in the ex­ ercise of their duties . He was at great pains to improve the church reading and psalmody (singing], for he was well skilled in both, al­ though he neither read in public nor sang, ex­ cept in a low tone and with others.

He was very forward in succoring the poor, and in that gratuitous generosity which the Greeks call alms, so much so that he not only made a point of giving in his own country and his own kingdom, but when he discovered that there were Christians living in poverty in Syria, Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, Alexan­ dria, and Carthage, he had compassion on their wants, and used to send money over the seas to them. ...

4Ravenna, in northeastern Ital y, was the final capital of the western Roman Empire, in the fifth cent ury; in the sixth and seventh centuries it was the capital of th e Byzantine governors of It aly. Ravenna is famous for its magnificent sixth-century churches and mosaic art .

Charlemagne AN INJUNCTION TO MONASTERIES TO CULTIVATE LETTERS

In a letter to the Abbot Baugulf of Fulda (in Germany), Charlemagne announced his decision to use monasteries as schools for training future clergymen in gram­ mar, writing, and rhetoric.

"',

212 Part Two The Middle Ages

Charles, by the grace of God, King of the Franks and Lombards and Patrician of the Romans, to Abbot Baugulf and to all the congregation, also to the faithful committed to you, we have di­ rected a loving greeting by our ambassadors in the name of omnipotent God.

Be it known, therefore, to your devotion pleasing to God, that we, together with our faithful, have considered it to be useful that the bishoprics and monasteries entrusted by the favor of Christ to our control , in addition to the [rule} of monastic life and the inter­ course of holy religion, ... also ought to be zealous in [the cultivation of letters}, teaching those who by the gift of God are able to learn, according to the capacity of each individual, so that just as the observance of the rule im­ parts order and grace to honesty of morals, so also zeal in teaching and learning may do the same for sentences, so that those who desire to please God by living rightly should not neglect to please him also by speaking correctly. For it is written: "Either from thy words thou shalt be justified or from thy words thou shalt be condemned. "*

For although correct conduct may be better than knowledge, nevertheless knowledge pre­ cedes conduct. Therefore, each one ought to study what he desires to accomplish, so that . . . the mind may know more fully what ought to be done, as the tongue hastens in the praises of omnipotent God withour the hindrances of errors. For since errors should be shunned by all men, . .. the more they ought to be avoided

*Matthew, xii . 37 .

REVIEW QUESTION

as far as possible by those who are chosen for this very purpose alone, so that they ought to be the especial servants of truth . For when in the years . .. [past}, letters were often written to us from several monasteries in which it was stated that the brethren who dwelt there of­ fered up in our behalf sacred and pious prayers, we have recognized in most of these letters both correct thoughts and uncourh expres­ sions; because what pious devotion dictated faithfully to the mind, the tongue, uneducated on account of the neglect of study, was not able to express in the letter without error.. .. We began to fear lest perchance, as the skill in writing was less, so also the wisdom for under­ standing the Holy Scriptures might be much less than it rightly ought to be. And we all know well that, although errors of speech are dangerous, far more dangerous are errors of the understanding. Therefore, we exhort you not only not to neglect the study of letters, but also with most humble mind, pleasing to God, to study earnestly in order that you may be able more easily and more correctly to pene­ trate the mysteries of the divine Scriptures. Since, moreover, images ... and similar fig­ ures are found in the sacred pages, no one doubts that each one in reading these will un­ derstand the spiritual sense more quickly if previously he shall have been fully instructedz in the mastery of letters . Such men truly are to be chosen for this work as have both the will and the ability to learn and a desire to in­ struct others. And may this be done with a zeal as great as the earnesrness with which we command it .

1. Why was Charlemagne so anxious to raise the educational standards of both the clergy and laity of his empire? How did he go about doing it?

Chapter 7 Th e Early Middle A ges 213

8 The Feudal Lord: Vassal and Warrior

In societies in which the state 's role in regulating human relationships is mini­ mal, law and order are maintained through custom and contract. This condition prevailed in the Early Middle Ages, particularly among the Germanic peoples. Laws were based on the community's assumptions about what was right and wrong, enforced by public opinion and community-approved use of force. To en ­ force law and to protect oneself and one's family, a person formed contractual ties with others and sought security and justice in mutual aid. A principal form of such a contract was called vassalage. By its terms, two free men of different m eans bound themselves to assistance and loyal support. The socially and eco ­ nomically superior man was called the lord; the man of inferior social status was called the vassal. The vassal pledged to be loyal and fight on behalf of his lord when called upon, in return for the lord's loyalty and protection when they were needed. The contract was lifelong and had deep emotional meaning in addition to the obvious self-interest of both parties.

Vassalage was a dynamic relationship, ever changing in content and meaning ac­ cording to time, place, and circumstances. In the Carolingian Empire, vas salage was practiced by all members of the free class wealthy enough to afford weapons. Charle­ magne and his successors tried to use vassalage as a means of controlling their war­ like subjects and organizing them to serve more effectively for the defense of the royal family's realms. Eventually, the kings' vassals used their military skills, their own landed wealth, and their political power to diminish royal power. The royal vassals then became the true center of authority within medieval society.

An important part of the lord-vassal relationship was the lord's grant of a fief to his vassal. The fief might be any object of value that reflected the vassal's social status and the lord's respect for his services. A fief could be a war­ horse, sword, and suit of armor; a public office; a right to collect a tax or toll; or authority to hold a court of justice in a specified district. The most sought­ after fief was a land grant--one or more manors from which to draw income. Fiefs were held for the duration of the bond of vassalage . If the bond was broken by death or di sloyalty, the fief was forfeited to its grantor. By the late ninth cen­ tury, however, fiefs had become hereditary, as had the right to be a vassal to a specific lord.

Galbert of Bruges COMMENDATION AND THE OATH OF FEALTY

This reading contains an eyewitness account of the ceremony of commendation or investiture in which vassals swore an oath of fealty (loyalty) to their new lord, William Clito, the count of Flanders, in 112 7, and w ere then invest ed with their fiefs . The account comes from an early twelfth-century chronicle written by a

214 Part Two The Middle Ages

Flemish notary, Galbert of Bruges (a major medieval commercial city in Flanders, now part of Belgium).

Through the whole remaining part of the day those who had been previously enfeoffed [given fiefs] by the most pious count Charles,' did homage to the count, taking up now again their fiefs and offices and whatever they had before rightfully and legitimately obtained. On Thurs­ day the seventh of April, homages were again made to the count being completed in the follow­ ing order of faith and security.

First they did their homage thus: The count asked if he was willing to become completely his

lCharles, count of Flanders, was murdered on March 2, 1127.

man, and the other replied, "I am willing;" and with clasped hands, surrounded by the hands of the count, they were bound together by a kiss. Secondly, he who had done homage gave his fealty to the representative of the count in these words, "I promise on my faith that I will in future be faithful to count William, and will observe my homage to him completely against all persons in good faith and without deceit," and thirdly, he took his oath to this upon the relics of the saints. Afterward, with a little rod which the count held in his hand, he gave investitures to all who by this agreement had given their security and homage and accompanying oath.

Bishop Fulbert of Chartres OBLIGATIONS OF LORDS AND VASSALS

In a letter written in 1020 to William, Duke of Aquitaine, Bishop Fulbert (c. 920-1028) of Chartres summarizes the obligations of the lord and the vassal.

To William most glorious duke of the Aquitani­ ans,' bishop Fulbert [asks] the favorof his prayers.

Asked to write something concerning the form of fealty, I have noted briefly for you on the authority of the books the things which follow. He who swears fealty to his lord ought always to have these six things in memory; what is harm­ less, safe, honorable, useful, easy, practicable. Harmless, that is to say that he should not be in­ jurious to his lord in his body; safe, that he should not be injurious to him in his secrets or in the defences through which he is able to be secure; honorable, that he should not be injuri­ ous to him in his justice or in other matters that pertain to his honor; useful, that he should not be injurious to him in his possessions; easy or

"The Aquiranians inhabited the kingd om of Aquitaine in southwestern France-later a province of France.

practicable, that that good which his lord is able to do easily, he make not difficult , nor that which is practicable he make impossible to him.

However, that the faithful vassal should avoid these injuries is proper, but not for this does he deserve his holding; for it is not sufficient to ab­ stain from evil, unless what is good is done also. It remains, therefore, that in the same six things mentioned above he should faithfully counsel and aid his lord, if he wishes to be looked upon as worthy of his benefice and to be safe concern­ ing the fealty which he has sworn.

The lord also ought to act toward his faithful vassal reciprocally in all these things. And if he does not do this he will be justly considered guilty of bad faith , just as the former, if he should be detected in the avoidance of or the do­ ing of or the consenting to them, would be per­ fidious and perjured.

Chapter 7 The Early Middle Ages 215

Bertran de Born IN PRAISE OF COMBAT

Feudal lords did not engage in productive labor as did serfs, merchants, and craftsmen. Manual labor and commerce were considered degrading for men of their rank and skills. Lords were professional warriors; combat was what they relished, trained for, and eagerly sought. They used their wealth to obtain armor and weapons; and even their <sports, hunting and tournaments, prepared them for battle.

The spirit of the feudal warrior is expressed in the following poem by Bertran de Born (c. 1140-c. 1215), a French nobleman from the bishopric of Perigord in southern France. He is ackowledged to have been a superior poet of his day, a good warrior, and a clever intriguer who stirred up troubles between the kings of France and England. His poetry captures the excitement and pageantry of me­ dieval warfare.

I love the springtide of the year When leaves and blossoms do abound, And well it pleases me to hear The birds that make the woods resound With their exulting voices. And very well it pleases me Tents and pavilions pitched to see, And oh, my heart rejoices

To see armed knights in panoply [full armor] Of war on meadow and on lea [pasture].

I like to see men put to flight By scouts throughout the countryside, I like to see, armed for the fight, A host of men together ride; And my delight's unbounded

When castles strong I see assailed, And outworks smashed, whose strength has

failed, And near the walls, surrounded By moats, and by strong stakes enrailed, The host that has the ramparts scaled.

And wellI like a noble lord When boldly the attack he leads, For he, whene'er he wields his sword, Inspires his men by his brave deeds, Their hearts with courage filling. When tide of battle's at the flood,

Each soldier then, in fighting mood, To follow should be willing, For no man is accounted good Till blows he's given and withstood.

Axes and swords and spears and darts, Shields battered in with many a blow, We'll see when first the battle starts, And clash of arms as foe meets foe; The steeds of dead and dying Wildly will rush throughout the field, And all who wish to be revealed As brave will e'er be trying How best their axes they may wield, For they would rather die than yield.

Not so much joy in sleep have I, Eating and drinking please me less Than hearing on all sides the cry "At them!" and horses riderless Among the woodlands neighing. And well I like to hear the call Of "Help!" and see the wounded fall, Loudly for mercy praying, And see the dead, both great and small, Pierced by sharp spearheads one and all.

Barons, without delaying, Pawn every city, castle, hall, And never cease to fight and brawl.

216 Part Two The Middle Ages

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. In the Middle Ages, cont racts were symbolized and publicly not ed by the use of various ritual acts or gestures. Explain how the cont ract of vassalage was signified by specific rituals or act ions.

2. What were some of the ethical and emotive dimensions of vassalage ? Describe the mutual obligations of lords and vassals.

3. What personal qualities were expected from a medi eval leader in combat? What challenge did the Germanic warrior sp irit present to th e leaders of the Christian Church ?

9 The Burdens of Serfdom

The feudal lord's way of life was made possible by the toil of the serfs who worked on the manors. Serfs, who were not free persons, had some rights but many burdensome obligations. Unlike slaves, they could not be sold off the land or dispossessed from their landholdings. Their tenure on their farms was hered­ itary, but they owed heavy rent to the landlord in the form of labor and a share of their crops and livestock. There were many restrictions on their personal free­ dom: they needed the landlord's permission to leave the estate, to marry, or to pass on personal property to their heirs. In return, they received security; they were defended by the landlords against outside aggressors or fellow serfs.

The labor services usually took up half the work week of the serf. He was re­ quired to plant, plow, and harvest the lord's fields, repair roads, fix fences, clear ditches, and cart goods to barns and markets. Although specific obligations varied from time to time and manor to manor, they were sufficiently onerous to encourage the serfs to seek freedom; in later centuries, when the opportunity presented itself, a serf might flee to a nearby town or to newly developed lands, or might purchase certain freedoms from the manorial lord. The serfs' struggle to rid themselves of the burdens of serfdom took centuries. It was largely successful in western Europe by the fifteenth century. But in eastern Europe, serfdom was imposed on the for­ merly free peasantry in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Remnants of serf­ dom in western Europe surv ived until the French Revolution. Serfdom was abolished in central and eastern Europe in the mid-nineteenth century.

Bishop Adalbero of Laon THE TRIPARTITE SOCIETY

Medieval thinkers came to see their society divided into three different but com­ plementary groups: clergy, lords, and serfs. Each group had its own responsibili ­ ties-s-priests guided the souls of the faithful; lords protected society from its enemies; and the serfs' toil provided sustenance for everyone. Written in about 1020, the following statement by Bishop Adalbero of Laon, France, illustrates the tripartite nature of medieval society.

The community of the faithful is a single body, but the condition of society is threefold in order. For human law distinguishes two classes. No­ bles and serfs, indeed, are not governed by the same ordinance.... The former are the warriors and the protectors of the churches. They are the defenders of the people, of both great and small, in short, of everyone, and at the same time they ensure their own safety. The other class is that of the serfs. This luckless breed possesses nothing except at the cost of its own labour, Who could, reckoning with an abacus, add up the sum of the cares with which the peasants are occupied, of their journeys on foot, of their hard labours?The serfs provide money, clothes, and food, for the rest; no free man could exist without serfs. Is

Chapter 7 Th e Early Middle Ages 21 7

there a task to be done? Does anyone want to put himself out? We see kings and prelates make themselves the serfs of their serfs; [but in truth] the master, who claims to feed his serf, is fed by him. And the serf never sees an end to his tears and his sighs. God 's house, which we think of as one, is thus divided into three; some pray, others fight, and yet others work. The three groups, which coexist, cannot bear to be sepa­ rated; the services rendered by one are a precon­ dition for the labours of the two others; each in his turn takes it upon himself to relieve the whole. Thus the threefold assembly is none the less united, and it is thus that law has been able to triumph, and that the world has been able to enJoy peace .

Ralph Glaber, Monk of Cluny FAMINE

Among the hardships burdening medieval peasants was famine, which particu­ larly afflicted the poor. The following passage by Ralph Glaber, monk of Cluny in France, describes the terrible famine of 1032-1034.

The famine started to spread its ravages and one could have feared the disappearance of almost the entire human race. The atmospheric condi­ tions became so unfavourable that no suitable time could be found to sow seed, and that, espe­ cially because of the floods, there was no means of reaping the harvest. ... Continual rains had soaked into all the soil to the point where dur­ ing three years no one could dig furrows capable of taking the seed. At harvest-time, weeds and ill-ornened tares had covered the whole surface of the fields. A [half bushel] of grain sown, where it gave the best yields, ... produced barely a fistful. If by chance one found some food for sale, the seller could charge an outrageous price just as he pleased. However, when they had eaten the wild beasts and birds, the people started, under the sway of a devouring hunger, to collect all sorts of carrion [decaying flesh] and other things which are horrible to mention to

eat. Some in order to escape death had recourse to forest roots and water-weed . Finally, horror takes hold of us listening to the perversions which then reigned among the human race. Alas! o woe! Something rarely heard of throughout the ages: rabid hunger made men devour human flesh. Travellers were kidnapped by people stronger than they were, their limbs were cut off, cooked on the fire and eaten. Many people who moved from one place to another to flee the famine, and who had found hospitality on the way, were murdered in the night, and served as food for those who had welcomed them. Many showed a fruit or an egg to children, enticed them into out-of-the-way spots, killed them, and devoured them. Bodies of the dead were in many places torn out of the ground and equally served to appease hunger.. . . Then people tried an experiment in the region of Macon which had never before, to our knowledge, been tried any­

218 Part Two The Middle Ages

where. Many people took our of the ground a white soil which looked like clay, mixed it with what flour or bran they had, and made our of this mixture loaves with which, they reckoned, they would not die of hunger; this practice how­ ever brought only an illusory hope of rescue and an illusory relief. One only saw pale and emaci­ ated faces; many people had a skin distended with swellings; the human voice itself became thin, like the little cries of dying birds. The corpses of the dead, who were so numerous that they had to lie scattered without burial, served as food for the wolves, who thereafter continued

for a long time to seek their pittance among men. And since it was not possible, as we said, to bury each person individually because of the great number of the dead, in certain places men who feared God dug what were commonly called charnel pits, into which the bodies of the dead were thrown by the 500 or more, as many as there was space for, pellmell, half naked or without any covering; crossroads and the edges of fields served as cemeteries. Although some heard say that they would find it better to take themselves off to other regions, many were those who perished along the way of starvation.

William of]umieges and Wace FAILED REBELLION

Occasionally, peasant anger at their treatment at the hands oflords led to open re­ bellion as illustrated in the following account by a Norman monk ofan uprising of Norman peasants in 977.

He had scarcely reigned or been duke for any length of time when there arose in that land a war which was to cause great misery. The peasants and villeins [partly freed serfs], those from the woodlands and those from the plains (I do not know through whose instigation it happened or who started it in the first place), held a number of councils in groups of twenty, thirty and a hun­ dred. They were devising a plan such that, if they could succeed in it and bring it to fruition, harm would be done to the highest noblemen. They discussed this in private and many of them swore between themselves that never again would they willingly have a lord or a governor. Lords did them nothing but harm and they could get noth­ ing our of them, from either their produce or their labours ; each day they were experiencing great suffering. They were enduring pain and hardship. Things used to be bad, bur now they were worse; every day their beasts were being taken to pay for aids and service. There were so many complaints and legal actions and so many old and new customs that they could not have an

hour's peace. Every day they were subject to [un­ just treatment by their lords). ...

There were so many provosts and beadles [lesser officials],' so many bailiffs, old and new, that they had no peace for a single hour; all day long they descended on them. They could not de­ fend themselves in court; each one of them wanted his due. These men had their beasts taken by force and they did not dare take a stand or de­ fend themselves. They could not go on living like this; they would have to abandon their lands. They could get no protection against either their lord or his men, who did not keep any agreement with them.

"Son of a whore!" said some, "why do we put up with all the harm which is being done to us? Let us free ourselves from their control! We are men as they are; we have the same limbs as they do, we are their equal physically and are able to endure as much as they can. The only thing we lack is courage. Let us unite on oath, defend our goods and ourselves and stick together. If they wish to wage war on us, against one knight we

have thirty or forty peasants, skilful and valiant. Thirty men in the flower of their youth will be cowardly and shameful if they cannot defend themselves against one man, providing they are willing to join forces. With clubs and large stakes , arrows and staffs, axes, bows and pikes, and stones for those who have no arms, let us defend ourselves against knights with the large number of men we have. In this way we can go into woods, cut down trees and take what we will, catch fish in the rivers and venison in the forests . We will do as we wish with everything, with the woods, the ponds and the meadows. "

Lords generally crushed these rebellions with great ferocity.

With such talk and such words, and other even more foolish remarks, they all agreed on this plan and all swore they would join forces and defend themselves together. They chose I do not know which or how many of the most intel­ ligent amongst them and the best speakers who would go round the country receiving oaths. But a plan transmitted to so many people could not be concealed for long. Whether it was from vas­ sals or men-at-arms, women or children, through drunkenness or anger, Richard very soon heard that the peasants were forming a commune and would take away what was rightfully his , from him and the other lords who had peasants and [tenants). He sent for his uncle Ralph and re­ lated the whole affair to him; Ralph was the very

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Chapter 7 The Early Middle A ges 219

valiant count of Evreux and very skilled in many things.

"My lord," he said, "do not worry; leave the peasants to me, for you would only regret taking action yourself. But send me your household troops, send me your knights ."

"Willingly," Richard replied to him. Then Ralph sent his spies and his couriers to many places. He did so much spying and had his spies make so many enquiries, with both the sick and the healthy, that he caught and captured the peasants who were arranging the meetings and receiving the oaths. Ralph was very angry and did not want to bring them to trial; he gave them all cause to feel sad and sorrowful. He had the teeth of many of them pulled out and others' feet cut off, their eyes put out and their hands cut off; yet others he had branded on the ham­ strings. He did not care who died as a result. The others he had roasted alive and others plunged into molten lead. He had them all so well dealt with that they were hideous to be­ hold . Henceforth, they were not seen anywhere without being easily recognised. Then the com­ mune came to an end and the peasants made no more moves; they all withdrew and abandoned what they had undertaken, as a result of the fear caused by seeing their friends injured and maimed. The rich peasants paid for all this, but they settled their debt from their own purses; they were left with nothing which could be taken from them while they could still be put to ransom. They reached the best agreements they could with their lords .

1. What hardships did medieval peasants face? 2. On the basis of these documents, how do you think lords viewed serfs?