Sociology of Sport VII Critique

Perceptions of service quality at football stadiums: influence on fans’ intention to attend future games Chanchai Phonthanukitithaworna and Carmine Sellittob

aMahidol University International College, Nakornpathom, Thailand; bVictoria University College of Business, Melbourne, Australia

ABSTRACT This study enhances the understanding of service quality at major spectator sports events in Thailand by examining the relationship between spectators’ perception of event quality and their behavioral intention to attend future games. Structural equation modeling (SEM) is used to analyze data collected from 849 spectators who attended Thai Premier League (TPL) games at three major stadiums in Bangkok. The empirical results indicate that spectator satisfaction and aesthetic quality associated with game-day attendance directly affect behavioral intention to attend future events. Notably, team performance (denoted as outcome quality) and total attendance cost were found to significantly influence spectators’ satisfaction and behavioral intention to attend future games. The study contributes substantially to the literature by proposing a model with four dimensions that directly affect the important issues of consumer satisfaction and subsequent intention to re- attend an event. Thai cultural features such as collectivism, a long-term outlook, and feminism are argued as being aligned with the proposed model dimensions. We discuss some of the findings with respect to these cultural features. Furthermore, the proposed total attendance cost dimension is novel in that it includes both monetary and non-monetary costs.

ARTICLE HISTORY Received 8 April 2018 Accepted 2 November 2018

KEYWORDS Sport service quality; Thai premier league; spectator; satisfaction; football; re-visit intention

Introduction

Sports consumption is an important aspect of Thailand’s national and international sport development, with direct impacts on popu- lation health outcomes and national economic value (Shonk & Chelladurai, 2008). In the specta- tor sport of professional football, headed by the Thai Premier League (TPL), approximately 300 football matches are played each season. Pro- fessional football makes a significant contri- bution to the Thai economy of more than 3.5 billion Baht per annum (Na Thalang, 2015). Therefore, many TPL teams strive to increase their game-day attendance not only to increase

ticket revenues but also to profit from the game-day supplementary stadium services derived from parking fees, food and beverage sales, merchandise purchases and visitor trans- portation. Clearly, the TPL has a financial incen- tive to provide spectators with superior customer service and memorable experiences to increase attendance at games.

The issue of consumer satisfaction associated with providing services at sporting events typi- cally requires engaging people across a spec- trum of functional offerings (Voon, Lee, & Murray, 2014). Furthermore, service functions at venues may involve several intangible and

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CONTACT Chanchai Phonthanukitithaworn chanchai.pho@mahidol.ac.th

MANAGING SPORT AND LEISURE 2018, VOL. 23, NO. 3, 204–224 https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2018.1544850

complex factors that directly impact how these functions are managed (Alexandris, Grouios, Tsorbatzoudis, & Bliatsou, 2001). Sport services contribute to the experience of a game or an event; however, it has been suggested that the measurement of service quality at such events is a relatively recent development (Ko, Zhang, Cattani, & Pastore, 2011). Indeed, factors that influence sport service quality include the actual services offered, the physical characteristics of the venue, and spectator experience and subsequent satisfaction (Du, Jordan, & Funk, 2015). Collectively, these factors tend to explain sport service satisfaction and how they might influence future patronage. However, many service quality studies have overlooked the role of the pleasing features and aesthetics of the service environment (Cronin, 2003; Yoshida & James, 2011). Although the cost of attending a sporting event has been investigated as an element of service quality, the non-monetary or intangible outlays, reflected by the time and effort required to prepare for, travel to, and subsequently attend a sporting event, have seldom been studied (Ferreira & Bravo, 2007). Nonetheless, activities that involve both monetary and non-monetary outlays are associated with the total cost of attending an event.

To address the gaps in previous studies on service quality in spectator sport and to under- stand the factors that influence Thai spectators’ satisfaction to attend future games, this study has several aims. Firstly, we formulate a theor- etical model from the literature that reflects Thais spectator’s satisfaction and behavioral intention to attend future games. We then empirically validate the formulated model by conducting research using a cohort of Thais spectators, and thirdly we discuss findings in the context of spectator’s satisfaction and behavioral intention to revisit the sport venue.

From a practical perspective, sport service quality can be a significant factor that influences current and future event patronage (Biscaia, Correia, Yoshida, Rosado, & Marôco, 2013).

Notably, spectator satisfaction associated with sport service delivery influences experiences that shape spectator attitudes and behaviors (Du et al., 2015). Kim, Ko, and Park (2013) suggested that the provision of basic services for fans at spectator events is insufficient to attract existing or new patrons. Given the importance of event service quality to spectator satisfaction, this paper proposes an initial con- ceptual model that includes service quality dimensions and the total cost of event attend- ance – a combination that is rarely investigated. The proposed service quality dimensions and sub-dimensions are argued to be aligned with Hofstede’s cultural dimensions that are likely to be encountered in the typical Thai setting. The model’s proposed sport service quality dimensions are evaluated for mediating effects on spectator satisfaction and how perceptions of service quality subsequently affect fans’ behavioral intention to attend future games (re-patronage).

Literature review

The marketing and retail literature has reported the value of providing high levels of service to consumers. The notion of service quality can be defined as “the consumer’s overall impression of the relative inferiority/superiority of the organization and its services” (Bitner & Hubbert, 1994, p. 77). Accordingly, the investi- gation of service quality has drawn significant attention due to its potential to establish a price advantage (Brady & Cronin, 2001), which in turn underpins an organization’s profitability.

In the context of sport, the provision and maintenance of highly valued supplementary services at a stadium or venue can augment spectators’ game-day experience (Voon et al., 2014). The sporting event itself can be con- sidered a consumer-experienced core product that influences consumers’ perceptions of service quality (Greenwell, Fink, & Pastore, 2002). Clearly, it is important to understand spectator perceptions of service quality that

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may be associated with satisfaction with an event and behavioral intention to attend an event (Du et al., 2015; Theodorakis, Alexandris, Tsigilis, & Karvounis, 2013; Tsuji, Bennett, & Zhang, 2007). Indeed, sport service quality is one of the critical factors that can be used to predict future consumption behavior (Kim et al., 2016). In the context of the sports indus- try, an increasing number of studies are examin- ing the measurement of service quality using different factors.

A primer on service quality in sport

Various service dimensions have been proposed as potential influential measures of sport service quality. TEAMQUAL, which was developed by McDonald, Sutton, and Milne (1995) as a general measure for determining service quality in professional team sports events, embodied the quality attributes of service empathy, assurance, reliability and responsive- ness. The framework highlighted differences between consumers’ perceptions and expec- tations of a service on offer. Wakefield, Blodgett, and Sloan (1996) developed the SPORTSCAPE framework, an instrument to determine specta- tor perceptions of the physical attributes of a stadium. Stadium attributes such as accessibil- ity, design aesthetics, seating and signage were notable in influencing future attendance intentions. Another framework, SPORTSERVE, was proposed to evaluate the perceptions of service quality and satisfaction among specta- tors, highlighting how attributes such as access, reliability and security resonated with post-event consumer values (Theodorakis, Kam- bitsis, & Laios, 2001). Both SPORTSCAPE and SPORTSERVE place a high degree of significance on the intrinsic quality of the experience of a venue’s services. Notably, the two frameworks focus on the ancillary features of service and overlook the contributory core factor of the sporting event itself. In their work on sport service quality, Kelley and Turley (2001) ident- ified certain factors influencing services,

including employee-fan engagement, pricing, stadium access, available concessions, spectator and fan comfort, game experience, show time, convenience and whether smoking was per- mitted. Collectively, these studies provide good examples of the diverse range of service quality attributes that can potentially impact fans’ perceived experience when they attend an event.

Typically, different approaches have been used to investigate the perceptions of spectator satisfaction associated with event service quality. For instance, Greenwell et al. (2002) examined the influence of the inanimate phys- ical environment, the core product of the game itself and the interaction of patrons with service staff to evaluate service quality. Tsuji et al. (2007) utilized a scale of gravity game (SGG) instrument to investigate the impact of service quality on spectator satisfaction. The SGG instrument embodied a core services dimension, reflecting the actual influence of the sport on service quality, and a peripheral services dimension, reflecting staff courtesy, ease of entrance, seating, etc. Perceived service quality (PSQ) and spectator satisfaction were investigated by Koo (2009) using technical, functional, and environmental attributes of service quality. Yoshida and James (2010) exam- ined spectator perceptions of game-related interactions (opponents, performance and atmosphere) and the service environment (facil- ity employees, access and space) and the manner in which those factors affected percep- tions of service quality. Performance analysis of service quality associated with Formula 1 racing has been used to rank spectator perceptions (satisfaction) of track services to identify which services are highly appreciated and which could be improved (Kim et al., 2016).

Although studies have contributed to an understanding of the dimensionality of service quality at sporting events and its link to specta- tor satisfaction, many such studies nonetheless lack an aesthetic component in their conceptu- alization of service quality (Yoshida & James,

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2011). Aesthetic quality refers to the consumer’s perception of pleasing features or products as a distinct dimension of the service quality environment that arguably is influenced by hedonic values in sport. Yoshida and James (2011) conducted one of the first investigations of service quality that included the aesthetic attribute. Their study indicated that future research should examine the predictive effect of service quality on consumer satisfaction responses and future behavioral consequences or intentions. The event quality for spectator sports (MEQSS) framework (Ko et al., 2011) included specific service attributes across a number of dimensions. Key quality attributes were found to be associated with the event, spectator interaction, outcomes, the venue environment and the supporting services. The framework also captured the value of the game, the available supporting services, patron interaction, the game’s outcome and the contribution of the physical environment. Some investigations of sport service quality have focused on predictive effects in relation to spectator activities. For instance, Theodorakis et al. (2013) developed a service quality model consisting of functional and outcome quality dimensions to investigate service quality, satis- faction and spectators’ behavioral intentions to attend future football games. Biscaia et al. (2013) examined the effects of service quality and ticket pricing on satisfaction and behavioral intention. The MEQSS framework was devel- oped to predict spectators’ event quality per- ceptions and their subsequent game re- attendance intention (Kim et al., 2013). Voon et al. (2014) proposed a quality scale to measure the attributes of responsiveness, reliability, and core and peripheral value as a means of determining service quality at sport- ing venues. Sports event participation and service delivery (PSEASD) scales have been pro- posed for exploring a personal performance perspective of event satisfaction (Du et al., 2015). This multi-dimensional assessment of time-reliant achievements embodies attributes

that align satisfaction with sporting event PSQ. Table 1 summarizes the previously described lit- erature regarding service quality in sport.

Sport service quality dimensions and issues associated with Thai national culture

Consumers across different countries may have different levels of service expectations, and fea- tures of the national culture have been noted as shaping consumer attitudes and patterns of behavior (Donthu & Yoo, 1998; Funk & Bruun, 2007; Furrer, Liu, & Sudharshan, 2000; MacIntosh & Parent, 2017). For instance, Western consu- mers, such as those from the USA and the UK, tend to express lower satisfaction ratings in certain situations than consumers from Eastern countries, who are typically represented by con- sumers in Thailand and Malaysia (Mattila, 1999; Zhang, Beatty, & Walsh, 2008). In the present study, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions that are noted to shape Thai society are argued to be aligned with the selected service factors. Hof- stede’s national culture framework has been fre- quently used and validated in service quality research, including spectator sport service quality studies (Furrer et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2008).

Thai culture is traditionally service-oriented, and the expectations associated with providing services differ from the expectations commonly held by consumers in Western societies (Craig & Douglas, 2006). Notably, in Thai society, the crucial element of good service is personal attention rather than efficiency and time savings, which in contrast appear to be highly valued in Western cultures (Furrer et al., 2000). This alignment of service with personal atten- tion reflects two elements of Thai society, namely, its collectivist character and its prefer- ence for high-context communication (Hof- stede & Hofstede, 2005). Indeed, Thailand as a collectivist society tends to value the establish- ment and maintenance of close-knit relation- ships within a social structure or group.

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Moreover, the level of person-to-person com- munication among members is likely to occur to a higher degree in Eastern societies than in Western societies (Mooij, 2004).

From a service quality perspective, people in collectivist cultures tend to place greater emphasis on intangible elements of service pro- vision when consuming and evaluating services (Mattila, 1999; Zhang et al., 2008). In spectator sports, the intangible element of service can reflect the visual appeal of the sporting venue, a stadium’s theme and festive atmosphere, the crowd experience during a game and the post-game experience (Brady & Cronin, 2001; Kahle, Aiken, Dalakas, & Duncan, 2003). Further- more, the various pleasure-generating conse- quences associated with spectator sport consumption can also be linked to the actual

outcome of the game (Grönroos, 1984; Pine & Gilmore, 1998; Theodorakis et al., 2013). Accord- ingly, a parallel is arguably discernible between collectivist/high-context cultures such as that of Thailand and the dimensions of aesthetic quality (facility design, game atmosphere, and crowd experience) and outcome quality (team and opponent performance).

Thailand is also characterized by a feminine culture with a long-term orientation (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In feminine cultures, people value strong relationships, caring, social equality and supportive service-oriented values (Hof- stede & Hofstede, 2005). Trust and commitment are considered necessary for sustaining custo- mer interactions. Notably, personal relation- ships and face-to-face conversations are important factors when considering service

Table 1. Selected literature on service quality in sport. Authors Dimensions Context Country

McDonald et al. (1995)

TEAMQUAL – Tangibles, Responsiveness, Reliability, Assurance, Empathy Basketball USA

Wakefield et al. (1996)

SPORTSCAPE – Stadium Access, Facility Aesthetics, Scoreboard, Seating Comfort, Layout Accessibility, Space Allocation, Signage

American football

USA

Theodorakis et al. (2001)

SPORTSERVE – Tangibles, Responsiveness, Access, Security, Reliability Basketball Greece

Kelley and Turley (2001)

Employees, Price, Facility Access, Concessions, Fan Comfort, Game Experience, Show Time, Convenience, Smoking

Basketball USA

Greenwell et al. (2002)

Physical Facility (access, aesthetics, scoreboard, comfort, layout), Core Product (the game itself), Service Personnel (staff interaction)

Ice Hockey USA

Tsuji et al. (2007) Scale of Gravity Game (SGG) – Core Services (action sports), Peripheral Services (staff, entrance, seating, ticketing, cleanliness, security, merchandise)

Action Sports USA

Koo (2009) SPORTSCAPE (Wakefield et al., 1996) and PSQ (technical, functional and environmental attributes)

Baseball USA

Yoshida and James (2010)

Service Quality (stadium employees, facility access, facility space), Core Product Quality (opponent characteristics, player performance, game atmosphere)

Baseball Japan & USA

Yoshida and James (2011)

Functional Quality (frontline employees, facility access, seat space), Technical Quality (player performance, opponent characteristics), Aesthetic Quality (crowd experience, game atmosphere)

Baseball Japan & USA

Ko et al. (2011) MEQSS – Game Quality (performance skill, operating time, information), Augmented Service Quality (entertainment, concessions), Interaction Quality (employee interaction, fan interaction), Outcome Quality (sociability, valence), Physical Environment (ambience, design, signage)

Baseball USA

Biscaia et al. (2013) Yoshida and James (2011) Model – Player Performance, Opponent Characteristics, Referees, Frontline Employees, Facility Access, Seat Space, Security, Facility Design, Game Atmosphere, Crowd Experience, Ticket Price

European Football

Portugal

Theodorakis et al. (2013)

PSQ – Functional Quality (tangibles, responsiveness, reliability, access and security), Outcome Quality (game quality and team performance)

European Football

Greece

Kim et al. (2013) Modification of MEQSS – Game Performance, In-Game Entertainment, Staff Quality, Physical Surroundings

Basketball USA

Voon et al. (2014) Sport Service Quality – Responsiveness, Reliability, Core and Peripheral Value Badminton Malaysia Du et al. (2015) PSEASD – Service Quality, Perceived Value, Personal Performance, Expectancy

Disconfirmation Running USA

Kim et al. (2016) Performance Analysis – Ticketing, Secondary Visuals, Accessibility and Parking, Food, Staff and Amenities

F1 Racing China

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provision in Thailand (Jaruwachirathanakul & Fink, 2005). With respect to national cultures that embody a long-term orientation, people tend to value and emphasize thrift, allowing them to focus on preferred projects with long- term benefits (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Hof- stede (1993) also found that individuals who value thrift tend to be cost-conscious.

Personal interaction often plays a key role in service delivery, with the level of customer sat- isfaction tending to hinge on the quality of interactions between service employees and customers (Furrer et al., 2000). In service pro- vision situations, Thai customers expect a service employee to be more empathic (Pornpi- takpan, 2000), thus reflecting elements of a strong people orientation as is characteristic of a feminine culture such as that of Thailand. Thus, Thais seem more apt to express a high level of satisfaction if they have a positive experience with service employees. Moreover, people in a service-oriented culture such as that encountered in Thailand tend to have a high level of expectation from service providers (Zhang et al., 2008). For instance, Thai hotel cus- tomers might expect not only a room for lodging but also amenities such as access to other facilities and additional services such as an in-room large screen TV, a comfortable bed, a swimming pool, a Wi-Fi connection, and in-room service. This heightened service expectation among Thai consumers can be explained by cost-conscious characteristics intrinsically associated with a long-term oriented national culture. Thais instinctively try to save money for the future (Hofstede & Hof- stede, 2005). Thus, Thais are likely to compare the cost of spending with the value gained from a product or service.

From this viewpoint, Thai consumers tend to evaluate service performance by considering not only the service environment but also the additional functions of the service (Bitner, 1992; McDonald et al., 1995). For instance, when spectators evaluate whether they are satisfied with attending a sports event, they

consider not only the quality of the game and stadium services but also the quality of frontline stadium employees delivering the service (Yoshida & James, 2011). Other considerations might include additional amenities such as free Wi-Fi, comfortable seats, stadium security, access to facilities, and toilets. Arguably, Thais also compare the total cost of attending an event, inclusive of total money, time and per- sonal effort spent, with the value gained from attending the event. This comparison will invari- ably affect satisfaction levels and subsequently influence consumers’ revisit intention for a future game. Accordingly, the feminine and long-term orientation of Thai’s national culture can be considered important issues that directly influence sport service functional quality (front- line employee, security, facility access and seat space) and total attendance costs (monetary and non-monetary).

Research model and hypotheses

According to Brady and Cronin (2001), service consumers tend to aggregate their evaluations of overall organizational performance across multiple primary dimensions and their sub- dimensions. In other words, consumers form their service quality perceptions by evaluating performance at multiple levels, ultimately forming an overall sense of satisfaction and behavioral intention. Therefore, the research model proposed for this study consists of four service primary dimensions, namely, aesthetic quality, outcome quality, functional quality and total attendance cost. Each primary dimen- sion of service quality contains sub-dimensions that reflect the noted cultural elements that characterize Thai society (see Figure 1).

Aesthetic quality Aesthetic quality reflects consumers’ perception of what have been termed pleasing features associated with the service provision environ- ment (Yoshida & James, 2011). Pine and Gilmore (1998) suggested that aesthetic

MANAGING SPORT AND LEISURE 209

quality can include consumer-initiated value in relation to service, the consumer experience with environmental cues and the exposure to ancillary service products. Arguably, the aes- thetic aspect of the service environment is defined by consumer-pleasing features related to venue space – such as stadium design, theme and festive atmosphere. In spectator sports, Yoshida and James (2011) proposed that the crowd experience at a game can also reflect elements of the aesthetic quality. Given the time that spectators spend at a stadium during an event, the visual appeal of the venue is clearly central to the aesthetic experience of the environment (Brady & Cronin, 2001; Kahle et al., 2003). Biscaia et al. (2013) noted facility design as an aesthetic quality dimension in their investigations of service quality, but their findings indicated little relationship between facility design and spectators’ satisfaction. On the other hand, game atmosphere was found to influence crowd experience and subsequent satisfaction, which in turn directly impacted the behavioral intention to attend future events. We propose that the aesthetic quality dimension consists of facility design, game atmosphere and crowd experience. Thus, the following hypoth- eses are formulated:

H1a There is a positive direct relationship between aesthetic quality and behavioral intention to attend future games.

H1b There is a positive relationship between aesthetic quality and spectator satisfaction.

Functional quality Functional quality focuses on the peripheral elements of service quality (Grönroos, 1984): the customers’ evaluative perceptions of the sport facility or stadium environment, the avail- able supporting services and interactions between the spectators and venue staff (McDo- nald et al., 1995). Both positive and negative assessments of the venue environment and staff will potentially impact consumers’ percep- tions of the services offered (Bitner, 1992). Furthermore, football games attract large numbers of people to stadiums and any disrup- tion or violence tends to be reported. Clearly, the sense of security perceived by people at the stadium may also be an important service attribute when evaluating the stadium environ- ment (Biscaia et al., 2013). Distinguishing between functional and aesthetic quality is important, given that the two dimensions share similar references to the service environment. Hence, in this study, the functional aspects of a service, such as venue space/size, arena layout, informational signs and security, reflect func- tional quality. This approach aligns with that of Yoshida and James (2011) who investigated the characteristics of frontline employees, venue entry and seating to measure spectators’ percep- tions of functional quality. These attributes along with the security attribute were also used by Biscaia et al. (2013) to reflect functional service quality, allowing them to predict spectators’ sat- isfaction and behavioral intention. We propose

Figure 1. Proposed conceptual model for sport spectator service quality.

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that the dimension of functional quality consists of frontline employees, facility access, seat space and security. Thus, the following hypotheses are formulated:

H2a There is a positive direct relationship between functional quality and behavioral intention to attend future games.

H2b There is a positive relationship between functional quality and spectator satisfaction.

Outcome quality Outcome quality directly reflects the endpoints of service production and delivery (Biscaia et al., 2013). Grönroos (1984) suggests that outcome quality is aligned with consumer rewards – that is, what the customer experiences after the production-consumption process is over. Outcome quality can also account for consumer perceptions of core products (Kelley & Turley, 2001). From a sporting perspective, the core product is associated with game-related attri- butes, such as team or player performance, the quality of the game, and a team’s character- istics and valence – that is, the outcome of the holistic experience (Theodorakis et al., 2013; | Yoshida & James, 2010, 2011). Brady, Voorhees, Cronin, and Bourdeau (2006) found that the outcome of a sporting event strongly influenced spectator satisfaction and experience. Likewise, Biscaia et al. (2013) found a positive relationship between team performance and spectator satis- faction. We propose that game quality and team performance are important features in the outcome dimension of service quality. Thus, the following hypotheses are formulated:

H3a There is a positive direct relationship between outcome quality and behavioral intention to attend future games.

H3b There is a positive relationship between outcome quality and spectator satisfaction.

Total attendance cost The associated costs are directly related to spec- tator sacrifices in attending a sporting event (Zeithaml, 1988); these sacrifices can be either

monetary or non-monetary. Monetary costs include tangible items such as admission tickets, parking, transportation and food and merchandise, while non-monetary costs embody intangible items such as the time and effort required to attend the event (Borland & Macdonald, 2003; Dobson & Goddard, 1995; Fer- reira & Bravo, 2007). Notably, the total cost of attending a sporting event may negatively influence attendance (Dobson & Goddard, 1995). Ferreira and Bravo (2007) found that per- ceived spectator costs could be a major barrier to game attendance. Arguably, spectators may choose not to attend a game or activity if the total costs involved are perceived as too high. A study by Biscaia et al. (2013) suggests that spectators’ perception of ticket prices influences behavioral intention to attend a professional football game. Seemingly, the total attendance cost of a sporting event has both monetary and non-monetary elements that affect specta- tor satisfaction. For instance, ticket costs, trans- portation expenses and venue product purchases are commonly reported in assess- ments of service quality (Phonthanukitithaworn & Sellitto, 2016b), but the non-monetary aspects (time and preparation effort) of event attend- ance are often overlooked. We propose a con- struct of total attendance cost that covers both monetary and non-monetary costs. Thus, the following hypotheses are formulated:

H4a There is a negative direct relationship between total attendance cost and behavioral intention to attend future games.

H4b There is a negative relationship between total attendance cost and spectator satisfaction.

Satisfaction and behavioral intention According to Oliver (2014), consumer satisfac- tion can be defined as an intrinsic response directed towards products, services and/or rewards. In the context of sport, spectator satis- faction reflects “a pleasurable, fulfillment response to the entertainment of the sport

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competition and/or ancillary services provided during the game” (Yoshida & James, 2010, p. 340). Koo (2009) suggests that spectators’ sat- isfaction associated with game attendance can be considered an indicator of potential fan loyalty and a means of increasing revenue. Tsuji et al. (2007) found that event-related factors, such as outcome quality and core service quality, significantly impacted satisfac- tion, and Greenwell et al. (2002) found that per- ipheral aspects of service, such as functional quality, affect spectator satisfaction. Similarly, Biscaia et al. (2013) noted that game atmos- phere and crowd experience represent aes- thetic aspects of quality service that influence satisfaction.

The understanding of consumers’ views of venue service quality is of integral interest to arena and event managers. Positive experiences can lead to favorable behavioral intentions toward service providers, resulting in positive word-of-mouth reviews, unsolicited referrals, enhanced loyalty and willingness to pay premium prices for certain offerings (Biscaia et al., 2013). Should service quality fail to meet consumers’ expectations, the resultant dissatis- faction may influence behavioral intentions, resulting in negative service reviews, complaints and decreased sales and revenue (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996). The conceptualiz- ation and application of behavioral intention have previously been adapted to the sporting context (Cronin, Brady, & Hult, 2000; Yoshida & James, 2010) using factors associated with repurchase intention, word-of-mouth com- munication and consumer loyalty. Hence, drawing from previous studies, we propose that the dimension of behavioral intention reflects spectators’ intentions to attend future games, recommend games to others and be loyal to their team. Thus, the following hypoth- esis is formulated:

H5 There is a positive relationship between spectator satisfaction and behavioral intention to attend future games.

Methodology

Data instruments and collection

To test the hypotheses, the study adopted a convenience sample survey methodology. The measurement items for each construct in the questionnaire were adopted from the existing literature on sport service quality research (see the Appendix), and the survey was designed to be short, concise and easy to administer (Sell- itto, 2006). The questions for each item used a seven-point Likert scale, asking respondents to indicate their agreement with statements from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Given that Thai consumers were the focus of this study, the questionnaire was translated into Thai and pretested with native-speaking spectators who were invited to join a discussion group to provide feedback on questionnaire ambiguity, wording, sequence, form, layout and instructions (Phonthanukitithaworn, Sell- itto, & Fong, 2015). The results of the pretesting were used to revise the questionnaire to improve clarity.

Data were collected at three comparable TPL football stadiums using the intercept survey approach, which has been proposed as an appropriate method for achieving high partici- pation rates (Phonthanukitithaworn & Sellitto, 2016a). The survey was conducted from early September through mid-October 2016 at the three venues. This time frame allowed for vari- ation in service quality performance to be equalized and allowed the researchers to over- come any potential bias inherent in collecting data at only one venue during a particular game. The stadium manager of each football venue granted permission to collect data. The same method was used to collect data at each venue. A supervisor and trained research assist- ants were positioned at all the stadium gates to distribute surveys to spectators (individual spec- tators were randomly approached as they entered the event through the gates), and at the conclusion of the game, members of the

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research team were stationed at the stadium’s exits to collect the surveys. At the end of the survey, a total of 884 completed question- naires had been returned. Of these, 35 were excluded from the study because they were incomplete. Thus, 849 valid responses remained for the analysis. Table 2 summarizes the descriptive characteristics of the respon- dents from the three stadiums. In brief, the majority of respondents were young males (between the age of 18 and 29 years) that were noted as either students or company employees – each group having an average monthly income of below THB 30,000 per month. The respondent profile of this study is consistent with the Thailand’s football fan culture that most commonly associated with young men (McCready, 2018).

Data analysis and results

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was adopted for measurement scale validation and structural analysis (Byrne, 2000; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). The maximum likeli- hood estimation procedure was employed using AMOS Version 22. The proposed research

model was analyzed using a three-step approach. First, a covariance matrix of all measured variables was constructed and sub- jected to a series of validity and reliability checks. Upon establishing the model fit, we esti- mated the significance and size of each struc- tural parameter for the specified model. Finally, post hoc mediation analysis using a bootstrap procedure was performed to test indirect effects in the path analysis model. The detailed results of the analysis are discussed below.

Reliability and validity of measurement items

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of all items allowed an evaluation of the validity of the items and underlying constructs. According to the recommended acceptance level specified by Hair et al. (2010), the resultant fit statistics indicated that the measurement model was a good fit for the data, with the chi-squared/df ratio below the suggested threshold of 3.0 (χ2

= 1772.53, df = 993, χ2/df = 1.89, p = 0.000). Fur- thermore, the goodness of fit index (GFI) = 0.918, the normed fit index (NFI) = 0.963 and

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of respondents.

Measure Item Frequency (Percentage)

(N = 849) Gender Male 623(73.4)

Female 226(26.6) Age 18–29 498(58.7)

30–44 275(32.4) 45–59 72(8.5) 60 or above 4(0.5)

Average monthly income Baht 10,000 or less 241(28.4) Baht 10,001–20,000 301(35.5) Baht 20,001–30,000 179(21.1) Baht 30,001–40,000 51(6) Baht 40,001–50,000 49(5.8) More than Baht 50,000 28(3.3)

Education Non-university education 290(43.1) Bachelor’s degree 524(61.7) Master’s degree or above 35(4.1)

Occupation Government/state enterprise employee 125(14.8) Private company employee 213(25.1) Business owner/self-employed 183(21.5) Student 306(36) Other 22(2.6)

MANAGING SPORT AND LEISURE 213

the comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.982 were all greater than 0.9 and within the minimum limit. The root mean square error of approxi- mation (RMSEA) = 0.032 was lower than the suggested limit of 0.05.

Convergent validity used factor loading for each variable. Hair et al. (2010) recommended that a loading of greater than 0.7 is preferred. The loading of each indicator on its underlying

construct ranged from 0.825–0.955, confirming convergent validity. The average variance extracted (AVE) values ranged from 0.730– 0.862, being greater than the minimum accepta- ble limit of 0.5. Composite reliability (CR) results strengthen a test of measurement validity, with all constructs in the study being greater than the minimum requirement of 0.6, as suggested by Hair et al. (2010). Table 3 summarizes the

Table 3. Confirmatory factor analysis of the measurement items. Construct Variable Standardized Loading Cronbach α CR AVE

Facility design (FD) FD7 0.930 0.939 0.940 0.839 FD6 0.932 FD5 0.885

Game atmosphere (GA) GA10 0.859 0.889 0.890 0.730 GA9 0.870 GA8 0.834

Crowd experience (CE) CE15 0.900 0.943 0.943 0.846 CE14 0.953 CE13 0.906

Frontline employee (FE) FE28 0.926 0.966 0.964 0.841 FE27 0.941 FE26 0.906 FE29 0.912 FE30 0.900

Facility access (FA) FA39 0.927 0.948 0.944 0.809 FA38 0.906 FA37 0.899 FA36 0.865

Security (SE) SE34 0.926 0.948 0.960 0.826 SE33 0.941 SE32 0.906 SE31 0.912 SE35 0.900

Seat space (SS) SS43 0.912 0.963 0.961 0.862 SS42 0.939 SS41 0.939 SS40 0.923

Team performance (TP) TP18 0.884 0.940 0.941 0.842 TP17 0.955 TP16 0.913

Opponent performance (OP) OP24 0.825 0.936 0.933 0.776 OP23 0.887 OP22 0.934 OP21 0.874

Non-monetary cost (NC) NC51 0.937 0.917 0.918 0.848 NC50 0.905

Monetary cost (MC) MC55 0.898 0.924 0.930 0.768 MC54 0.886 MC53 0.834 MC56 0.886

Satisfaction (SA) SA60 0.944 0.941 0.942 0.843 SA59 0.905 SA61 0.905

Behavioral intention (BI) BI65 0.850 0.942 0.942 0.803 BI64 0.880 BI63 0.923 BI62 0.928

214 C. PHONTHANUKITITHAWORN AND C. SELLITTO

results of the CFA for the reliability and validity of the measurement model.

According to Fornell and Larcker (1981), dis- criminant validity exists when the correlation coefficient of the two constructs is smaller than the square root of the AVE of each of those constructs. The results in Table 4 indicate that the square root of the AVE of all the con- structs exceeded the correlations between the two. Therefore, the distinctiveness of the ana- lyzed constructs was confirmed.

Structural model and hypothesis testing

Direct effects The results of the analysis of the structural model identify satisfactory fits between the model and the empirical data (χ2/df = 2.08, GFI = 0.905, NFI = 0.956, CFI = 0.977, RMSEA = 0.036). Each hypothesis was tested by examining the path significance. Figure 2 illustrates the path diagram with the standardized structural par- ameter estimates included on the paths.

Regarding the structural relations for sport spectator satisfaction when watching a game at a stadium, the effect of outcome quality (H3a) and total attendance cost (H4a) are sup- ported (β = 0.298, p < 0.001 and β = 0.249, p < 0.001, respectively). However, aesthetic quality (H1a) and functional quality (H2a) were found to have no effect on spectator satisfaction. These constructs explained 50 percent of the total variance in spectator satisfaction – the

greatest effect being associated with outcome quality.

Regarding the effect on behavioral intention to attend future games, only aesthetic quality (H1b), outcome quality (H3b) and satisfaction (H5) confirm this prediction (β = 0.243, p < 0.001, β = 0.383, p < 0.001, and β = 0.698, p < 0.001, respectively). Notably, the functional quality (H2b) and total attendance cost (H4b) hypotheses are unsupported. The model explains 67 percent of the total variance in behavioral intention, with satisfaction contribut- ing the greatest effect.

Mediating effects A formal test of indirect effects using a bootstrap procedure was conducted to examine the mediation effects in the path analysis model. As shown in Table 5, total attendance cost was found to have no direct effect on behavioral intention. However, the total attendance cost construct relationship with behavioral intention is fully mediated via satisfaction. The results also suggest that there is a significant direct and indirect relationship between outcome quality and behavioral intention. Indeed, there is evidence for partial mediation of the relation- ship through satisfaction. Moreover, no indirect effect was found between aesthetic quality and behavioral intention. This finding confirms a direct effect of aesthetic quality on behavioral intention. For the indirect path, the effect of outcome quality on behavioral intention is the

Table 4. Square root of AVE (in bold) and factor correlation coefficients. FD GA CE FE FA SE SS TP OC NC MC SA BI

FD 0.916 GA 0.684 0.854 CE 0.536 0.747 0.920 FE 0.517 0.521 0.530 0.917 FA 0.626 0.660 0.573 0.649 0.900 SE 0.560 0.603 0.557 0.757 0.727 0.909 SS 0.527 0.539 0.488 0.638 0.797 0.661 0.928 TP 0.444 0.604 0.658 0.492 0.520 0.522 0.478 0.918 OC 0.445 0.518 0.579 0.532 0.504 0.588 0.455 0.608 0.881 NC 0.448 0.504 0.440 0.542 0.638 0.557 0.627 0.438 0.393 0.921 MC 0.446 0.501 0.465 0.576 0.628 0.589 0.639 0.417 0.438 0.745 0.876 SA 0.453 0.558 0.547 0.466 0.539 0.547 0.542 0.529 0.501 0.480 0.531 0.918 BI 0.329 0.448 0.476 0.402 0.464 0.487 0.471 0.516 0.466 0.439 0.446 0.798 0.896

MANAGING SPORT AND LEISURE 215

strongest, followed by total attendance cost, aes- thetic quality and functional quality (β = 0.267, β = 0.174, β = 0.091, and β = 0.013, respectively). Among the variables affecting behavioral inten- tion, satisfaction has the highest influence, with β = 0.698, followed by outcome quality, aesthetic quality, total attendance cost and functional quality, with β = 0.565, 0.334, 0.208, and 0.065, respectively.

Discussion and implications

This study proposed a sport service quality model that includes the dimensions of aesthetic quality, outcome quality, functional quality and total attendance cost. These dimensions influence spectator game-day satisfaction and the subsequent behavioral intention to attend future events. The testing of the model

Figure 2. Results of structural path analysis for the research model and hypotheses testing.

Table 5. Direct, indirect and total effects of the relationships.

Independent variable

Satisfaction (R2 = 0.501) Behavioral Intention (R2 = 0.671)

Mediation analysis results

Direct effect

Indirect effect Total effect

Direct effect

Indirect effect

Total effect

Aesthetic quality 0.131ns – 0.131ns 0.243*** 0.091ns 0.334*** Direct effect on BI Functional quality 0.019ns – 0.019ns 0.052ns 0.013ns 0.065ns No effect Outcome quality 0.383*** – 0.383*** 0.298*** 0.267*** 0.565*** Partial mediation Total attendance cost

−0.249*** – −0.249*** −0.034ns −0.174** −0.208** Full mediation

Satisfaction – – – 0.698*** – 0.698*** Direct effect on BI

Note: Standardized coefficients are reported. **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001, ns = not significant.

216 C. PHONTHANUKITITHAWORN AND C. SELLITTO

identified the strong direct and indirect effect of outcome quality on spectators’ satisfaction and behavioral intention. The dimension of outcome quality relates to a consumer’s percep- tions of the core product on offer – that is, game-day quality and team performance (Yoshida & James, 2011). This finding is consist- ent with that of previous studies (Biscaia et al.,

2013;Brady et al., 2006; Howat & Assaker, 2016; Tsuji et al., 2007) that identified outcome quality as a significant influence on spectator satisfaction and behavioral intention. Indeed, this finding reinforces the importance of understanding that on-field performance in team sports is a key factor in post-event evalu- ation. In other words, a positive perception of the quality of a football game and the individual player performance will enhance spectator sat- isfaction level, which in turn will direct behav- ioral intention to re-attend.

The findings also indicate a strong effect of total attendance cost on spectator satisfaction, which in turn has an effect on behavioral inten- tion to attend future games. The linkage between perceived spectator cost, particularly direct monetary outlays, and satisfaction has been documented for spectator sport (Biscaia et al., 2013; Borland & Macdonald, 2003; Dobson & Goddard, 1995; Ferreira & Bravo, 2007). However, this study is one of the first to propose the dimension of total attendance cost – a dimension that includes not only tangi- ble monetary outlays (e.g. ticket, parking, trans- portation, and food and merchandise) but also non-monetary factors such as time spent travel- ing to a venue, finding parking, waiting in line to purchase food during a game and pre-game preparation efforts before leaving home. The total attendance cost dimension was found to negatively influence re-visit behavioral inten- tion through satisfaction. The significance of perceived cost as a determinant of behavioral intention resonates with the long-term orien- tation of Thai culture. People associated with this type of national culture value saving money for the future and being cost-conscious

(Hofstede, 1993; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). This finding indicates that spectators may choose to attend a game if the total attendance cost is perceived as low. Importantly, non-mon- etary factors will invariably be beyond the control of promoters and stadium managers – particularly in relation to efforts associated with pre-game preparation at home.

Aesthetic quality had a direct effect on behavioral intention to attend a sporting event. Aesthetic quality is related to consu- mer-pleasing features associated with the stadium, such as consumers’ perceived impressions of the venue, the arena size, the stadium design and theme, a festive atmos- phere and the excitement of being part of the crowd (Yoshida & James, 2011). According to Agnew and Carron (1994), the enthusiasm of the crowd is an important component of the stadium environment and thus can provide a stimulus for spectators to be part of the football crowd milieu. This finding is consistent with Biscaia et al. (2013), who found that quality attri- butes included a game-day atmosphere and crowd experience that directly influenced spec- tator satisfaction and behavioral intention to attend future sports events.

This study identified a significant relationship between spectator satisfaction and behavioral intention. This finding is in accordance with past studies that indicated a strong effect of spectator satisfaction and behavioral intention to attend games (Biscaia et al., 2013). The partial mediation of satisfaction between outcome quality and behavioral intention suggests that a positive perception of game quality and player performance will favor spec- tator behavioral intention to a certain degree – all directed via a person’s satisfaction with watching a game. Satisfaction had a full mediation effect between the total attendance cost and behavioral intention. This finding suggests that when spectators are satisfied with the game, they will potentially attend future games even though they might perceive a relatively high attendance cost.

MANAGING SPORT AND LEISURE 217

The significance of aesthetic quality and outcome quality as the determinants of behav- ioral intention not only accords with previous studies (Biscaia et al., 2013; Kahle et al., 2003; Yoshida & James, 2011) but also can arguably be attributed to the collectivist orientation of Thai society. As previously stated, Thailand is con- sidered a collectivist culture in which people tend to emphasize intangible cues furnished by the environment as well as the pleasure-generating consequences of a consumption situation (Zhang et al., 2008). Due to these cultural charac- teristics, good impressions of the surroundings of service settings and positive perceptions of game quality and player performance will likely encou- rage a spectator behavioral intention to attend future sporting events.

Finally, this study found that functional quality had an insignificant effect on satisfaction and behavioral intention. Functional quality refers to customers’ evaluative perceptions of the sport facility, the availability of supporting services and interactions with venue staff (McDonald et al., 1995). This finding is in line with Biscaia et al. (2013), who reported that frontline employee engagement, access to facilities and seat size/space had no impact on fans’ satisfaction and behavioral intention. However, the insignificant effect of functional quality on satisfaction and behavioral intention seems to contradict the feminine characteristic of Thai society. As noted, in a feminine culture, people tend to be service-oriented and accord- ingly expect empathic and high levels of service provision from employees. Arguably, this finding may be associated with the context in which the respondents were surveyed. Since the survey was conducted with football fans at the end of the games, these fans would most likely have been highly emotional toward the outcome of game (be it win or loss) – hence, they may have considered this functional quality to be less important in their responses. However, this finding does not necessarily mean that sport stadium managers should ignore these service quality attributes. Several

studies in spectator sports contend that func- tional quality has an important role in increasing spectator satisfaction and the subsequent behavioral intention to re-attend events. For instance, Yoshida and James (2010) found that access to facilities influenced a spectator’s satis- faction. Likewise, Theodorakis et al. (2013) found venue security to be an important factor in games played between teams that had a strong following/rivalry.

Managerial implications

From a practical perspective, the findings of this study hold important implications for the sport industry in terms of strategies that it can adopt to attract existing and future patrons. The strong effect of outcome quality on spectator satisfaction and behavioral intention reported in this study illustrates a major challenge for entities involved in managing a sporting event. Notably, managers of sporting events cannot control what is considered their core product – namely, the quality of a game and/ or player performance, both of which are impor- tant aspects of the sport consumption experi- ence (Kelley & Turley, 2001; MacIntosh & Parent, 2017; Yoshida & James, 2011). However, managers would be well served to utilize strategies to influence consumer percep- tions when attending stadium events. Specifi- cally, they can highlight other features of the events to influence consumers’ actions. For instance, they can improve the physical environment of the stadium and other impor- tant factors to influence spectators to attend games even when their core product situation might be viewed as less appealing. For example, if the season champion team is playing a low-level, easy-to-beat team, the game could generate minimal excitement and interest. In this scenario, a manager could utilize the perceived quality of the champion team in marketing communications (pro- motional videos showing star players) to increase attendance levels.

218 C. PHONTHANUKITITHAWORN AND C. SELLITTO

Since the total attendance cost plays a crucial role in spectators’ re-attending intentions, sporting event managers should pay particular attention to this issue. Notably, if spectators per- ceive the benefits of attending a game as being greater than the game-day expenses, there is an increased likelihood of future re-visits. There- fore, managers should ensure appropriate price levels for admission tickets, parking fees and food and drink at the sport venue. Equally importantly, parking space and lines should be well organized and managed, especially during the peak season, prevent negative per- ceptions. In addition, sports stadium managers may offer a shuttle-bus service to transport spectators from other areas to the sport venue and vice versa, since this extra service helps spectators minimize their travel time to the venue and thus lowers their overall effort in attending a game.

The direct effect of aesthetic quality on re- visit behavioral intention highlights the impor- tant role of the stadium’s service environment in influencing spectators. Therefore, managers should aim to improve the physical environ- ment of the stadium and provide spectators with an appealing atmosphere, for example, by decorating the stadium with a special team theme, offering memorabilia with team colors and logos, organizing special events before the games and at half-time, and displaying the lyrics of familiar songs or pictures of star players on mega-screens (Biscaia et al., 2013). The implementation of these strategies may persuade spectators to re-visit, even though they may be dissatisfied with player perform- ance or game quality.

Theoretical implications

The proposed model’s specific focus on sport service management draws its dimensions from the theoretical literature and is adapted for use in the sport stadium scenario. The model’s dimensions include aesthetic quality, outcome quality, and functional quality and

the ancillary dimension of total attendance cost. From a theoretical standpoint, the model holds several implications for scholars in the field of service quality. Notably, since there is a lack of research that takes into account the non-monetary cost or intangible outlays of attending a sporting event, the proposed model makes a significant contribution to the literature on sport service quality by introducing the dimension of total attendance cost, which includes both monetary and non-monetary elements. Furthermore, the fit of the theorized service quality model and the relationship between the proposed constructs contribute to a better understanding of the dimensionality of service quality in relation to professional team sports. The model’s dimensions are pro- jected to influence spectator satisfaction, which in turn has a positive effect on behavioral intention to attend future games. Hence, the proposed model can be adopted as a funda- mental research framework as it is, or it may be modified to include new dimensions for application to different situations.

Limitations and directions for future study

The research provides enhanced understanding of service quality associated with sporting events in Thailand that have significant specta- tor following. Given this focus on Thailand foot- ball, the findings of the study are not generalizable. Therefore, the proposed model needs to be tested in other sport settings. Indeed, team-based sports such as football tend to be characterized by a highly emotional fan base (Phonthanukitithaworn & Sellitto, 2017), who may thus have a greater influence on the game-day outcome dimension than in sport situations that are generally considered less emotionally arousing, such as athletics, tennis, and archery. Arguably, the model’s appli- cation to other sports settings should also focus on activities in countries or regions that have a similar or different national culture to Thailand.

MANAGING SPORT AND LEISURE 219

This would allow the model to be applied to diverse cultural contexts, providing insights into sport consumers associated with those con- texts. Furthermore, findings from such studies potentially may augment (or contradict) some of the issues associated with Hofstede’s cultural dimensions as they relate to our study of Thai sport consumers.

Future research might utilize the proposed service quality model in non-sporting contexts, such as the entertainment and performance industry. Comparative studies between different settings may identify differences in and/or new ideas of service quality. Moreover, this study did not specify any moderating effects on the proposed service quality model. Thus, we suggest that future research examine the effects of moderating variables, such as gender, age, and income, on the relationship between the proposed service quality dimen- sions and total attendance cost variables. Equally importance, this study found the insignificant effect of functional quality on spec- tator satisfaction and behavior intention, in which it seems to contradict the feminine characteristics of Thai society. Hence, we suggest future research to investigate the relationship of functional quality of satisfaction and behavioral intention in regards to Thai foot- ball fans and non-fans in order to see whether the relationship between these factors vary across the groups.

Other factors may affect spectator satisfac- tion and re-visit intention, for instance, auxiliary entertainment (Kelley & Turley, 2001) and custo- mers’ utilitarian, hedonic, and symbolic values (Chandon, Wansink, & Laurent, 2000). Therefore, future studies might include these factors to extend our understanding of the service quality issues associated with professional team sport.

Conclusion

This study proposed a theoretical model included four service quality dimensions of

sport venue attributes (stadium aesthetics, game-day outcomes, venue functions and the total cost of attendance). The mediating influence of service quality on spectator satis- faction and behavioral intention was tested with a cohort of 849 fans who attended TPL games at three stadiums in Bangkok. The empirical findings indicate a direct effect of sat- isfaction and aesthetic quality on behavioral intention to re-visit. However, outcome quality and total attendance cost significantly influence spectators’ satisfaction and sub- sequent behavioral intention to attend future games. The proposed model and suggested directions for future research provide numerous opportunities to continue to advance our understanding of service provision and sport consumption.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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Appendix. Measurement items

Construct and measurement item Source Aesthetic quality Biscaia et al. (2013); Brady and Cronin (2001); Wakefield et al.

(1996); Yoshida and James (2011) Facility design The stadium’s architecture gives it an attractive character The stadium is decorated based on an appealing theme The stadium is attractive Game atmosphere The team’s special events are some of the best I have experienced At the stadium, I can rely on there being a good atmosphere The sound at the stadium favors the game atmosphere The stadium’s ambience is what I want at the game I enjoy the excitement surrounding the performance of the players I like the excitement associated with player performance Crowd experience I get excited by being with other fans who are cheering, yelling, singing and screaming for their team

The crowd energy that I feel at games gets me excited To hear the crowd cheer is fun Outcome quality Brady et al. (2006); Koo (2009); Yoshida and James (2010) Team performance My team gives 100% every game My team plays hard all the time Players on my team always try to do their best My team’s players perform well-executed plays Players on my team have superior skills Opponent characteristics Opposing teams are high quality Opposing teams have star players Opposing teams have a good history Opposing teams have good win/loss records Functional quality Biscaia et al. (2013); Brady and Cronin (2001); Wakefield et al.

(1996); Yoshida and James (2011) Frontline employees The attitude of the employees at the stadium shows that they understand my needs

The employees at the stadium respond quickly to my needs The stadium employees understand that I rely on their professional knowledge

I can rely on the employees at the stadium being friendly The attitude of the employees at the stadium demonstrates their willingness to help attendees

(Continued)

MANAGING SPORT AND LEISURE 223

Appendix. Continued.

Construct and measurement item Source I can rely on the stadium employees taking action to address my needs

Facility access Signs at the stadium help me know where I am going Sign at the stadium give clear directions to where things are located The stadium layout makes it easy to get to the restrooms The stadium layout makes it easy to get to my seat Seat space There is plenty of knee room in the seating area There is plenty of elbow room in the seating area The arrangement of the seats provides plenty of space The stadium provides comfortable seats Total attendance cost Biscaia et al. (2013); Borland and Macdonald (2003); Ferreira and

Bravo (2007); Zeithaml et al. (1996) Monetary total attendance cost Entrance fee is expensive Parking fee is expensive Food and drink at the sport venue are expensive Traveling expense from my place to the sport venue is expensive Overall, attending the game will cost me a lot of money Non-monetary total attending cost I have to spend a lot of time finding car parking at the sport venue I have to spend a lot of time waiting in line to purchase food/drink at the sport venue

I have to spend a lot of time traveling to and from the sport venue I have to put in a lot of preparation effort at home before attending the game

Overall, attending the game takes noticeable time and effort Overall, attending the game takes a noticeable preparation effort Satisfaction Biscaia et al. (2013); Brady et al. (2006) I am happy with my decision to attend this game I did the right thing by attending this game Overall, I think this game was a satisfying experience Overall, I am satisfied with my decision to attend the game Behavioral intention Biscaia et al. (2013); Koo (2009); Zeithaml et al. (1996) Likelihood to say positive things about the game Likelihood to encourage friends to attend Likelihood to attend games in the future Likelihood to attend more games in which my team plays

224 C. PHONTHANUKITITHAWORN AND C. SELLITTO

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